Asceta in domo

I want consider the Basilian rule and his asceticism that, differently from habit in Christian Middle orient, some figure of this habit are Saint Anthony Abbot(a.Ch  251-356) Saint Pachomius, (a.Ch,292-348) and others. The first think is what is the difference among these exemplars, because always asceticism, but difference is that other ascetic lived in caves and town very inhospitable, and the Basilian rule has let to these monks the life in the convent, therefore  the practical is same but organization is different, because now is predominant the rule, and the difference is very important, because a modification, very radical, reconcile the ascetic practical but in different town and through a rule.  Some step show it, the first that we must consider is solitude: “To aid the soul to concentrate is necessary live in solitude. It is dangerous, in fact, live among who has fair of God, and refuse of follow his orders; Salomon learns it: “You not must accompany to choleric, to not habit to his way, and Saint Paul, the Apostle says: “Therefore go out among them and separate yourselves”, this is again the way of ascetic practice, and other step: “If we fear to be tempted to ears or eyes and so habit to sin, if we fear to our soul the mortal danger is we keep in our memory the things that we have seen or things heard, if we want continue to prayer we must begin to live alone. We are going to succeed so may to escape that habit of live like stranger to orders of Christ”. Other step underlines the faith of this mysticism to goodness of God: “After the offended our God through our indifference to signs of his goodness, we aren’t were quieted by his goodness and liked devoid of his love, but we are took of death and given to life, and by our lord Jesus Christ, and way that he has saved us is worthy greater admiration: “He being God although, he didn’t consider this condition as privilege, but he private him of this nature and he took servant condition”. Basil has kept that mysticism but he has changed town; it is certainly can be a medical change, but Basil has given origin to conventualism both middle oriental and occidental, he has given a dwell to mysticism.

Alessandro Lusana   

    

In nomine Domini

Title of this essay has two references, the first is God, that in Latin language is Dominus; therefore ecclesiastical architecture, that we are going to see during read, And second reference is the chief, that in Latin is same dominus; these difference between earthly and divine power has determined both architecture and motive to this build; we can consider that the Monarchia of Dante Alighieri, is a book of this beautiful poetry that explain that mankind has two leaders, these are God and imperator, that in small dimensions become the local church and chief of feud. I want not certainly annoy to description material or form of a church, but I want alone search common stylistic origin of material, and who has worked; thereupon style. I want begin to a abbey of Valvisciolo, near Sermoneta, Italy(Figs.1-1b), that from 1241 has been an abbey of Cistercian order, that today is there present, nothing at last to Italy is interesting, but we can see some architectonic structure, that in cloister is very interesting to bound that we are going to find in other structure, as cathedral of Saint Mary in Sermoneta(Fig.4). Coincidences alone or other causes are determined this nearness? Certainly other causes and what? In years 1054 a scission between Roman Church and oriental Church, that after is become orthodox, a mere theological question was sufficient to divide the two Churches, until that years united in principal question, although issues and disagreements has been also before; but in the Roman Church, so Constantinople called the occidental faith last pope from Constantinople, pope Zechariah, was given a small of city, this is Ninfa(Figs.5-6), today very beautiful garden, according to opinion of the New York Time that has valued that it is garden is more beautiful and romantic in the word; certainly pride motive, but some structure that is present we must consider that it are relic of ancient structure, that we can date about 9^th century, and we can consider it as survive of church, Basilian churches, what is Basilian order? This order is born to 4^th century in Middle orient and to 9^th century is present in Rome, characteristic is asceticism in convent, and monks live in small cells where they pray alone and in church; it is alone history and very small interesting, but during 8^th century, in 750 a.Ch., imperator of Constantinople and Italy, Constantine 5^th gift the land of Ninfa to pope Zachariah, last oriental pope, that has filled this land of monks of order very faithful to Constantinople, thereupon Basilian was one of these order, and certainly more numerous than others; therefore the garden of Ninfa was land very important to this translated, apropos they monks, at last then spoke prevalently the Byzantine Greek; it is necessary to a epigraph that we after we are going to see. From Ninfa garden and Abbey of Valvisciolo distance is 7 miles, therefore very near, and some monks has transferred and built the first nucleus of abbey of Valvisciolo, that today would be difficult identify, but we must consider that this first built is today visible in fact we can walk in this structure simply walking in the cloister; the plane of this cloister is regular and on Greek cross, this is quadrate, and cloister(Figs.7-8), is perfectly quadrate, but this built isn’t of Cistercian order, but it is primitive church of Basilian order, now without roof, but in origin it was. During restores of 1957, in cloister on floor were found traces, very labile but present of partition walls, that defined the cells of Basilian monks that in front of cells have the church; in rule of Saint Basil  therefore asceticism was constant. Title of this essay has two references, the first is God, that in Latin language is Dominus; therefore ecclesiastical architecture, that we are going to see during read, And second reference is the chief, that in Latin is same dominus; these difference between earthly and divine power has determined both architecture and motive to this build; we can consider that the Monarchia of Dante Alighieri, is a book of this beautiful poetry that explain that mankind has two leaders, these are God and imperator, that in small dimensions become the local church and chief of feud. I want not certainly annoy to description material or form of a church, but I want alone search common stylistic origin of material, and who has worked; thereupon style. I want begin to a abbey of Valvisciolo, near Sermoneta, Italy(Figs.1-1b), that from 1241 has been an abbey of Cistercian order, that today is there present, nothing at last to Italy is interesting, but we can see some architectonic structure, that in cloister is very interesting to bound that we are going to find in other structure, as cathedral of Saint Mary in Sermoneta(Fig.4). Coincidences alone or other causes are determined this nearness? Certainly other causes and what? In years 1054 a scission between Roman Church and oriental Church, that after is become orthodox, a mere theological question was sufficient to divide the two Churches, until that years united in principal question, although issues and disagreements has been also before; but in the Roman Church, so Constantinople called the occidental faith last pope from Constantinople, pope Zechariah, was given a small of city, this is Ninfa(Figs.5-6), today very beautiful garden, according to opinion of the New York Time that has valued that it is garden is more beautiful and romantic in the word; certainly pride motive, but some structure that is present we must consider that it are relic of ancient structure, that we can date about 9th century, and we can consider it as survive of church, Basilian churches, what is Basilian order? This order is born to 4th century in Middle orient and to 9th century is present in Rome, characteristic is asceticism in convent, and monks live in small cells where they pray alone and in church; it is alone history and very small interesting, but during 8th century, in 750 a.Ch., imperator of Constantinople and Italy, Constantine 5th gift the land of Ninfa to pope Zachariah, last oriental pope, that has filled this land of monks of order very faithful to Constantinople, thereupon Basilian was one of these order, and certainly more numerous than others; therefore the garden of Ninfa was land very important to this translated, apropos they monks, at last then spoke prevalently the Byzantine Greek; it is necessary to a epigraph that we after we are going to see. From Ninfa garden and Abbey of Valvisciolo distance is 7 miles, therefore very near, and some monks has transferred and built the first nucleus of abbey of Valvisciolo, that today would be difficult identify, but we must consider that this first built is today visible in fact we can walk in this structure simply walking in the cloister; the plane of this cloister is regular and on Greek cross, this is quadrate, and cloister(Figs.7-8), is perfectly quadrate, but this built isn’t of Cistercian order, but it is primitive church of Basilian order, now without roof, but in origin it was. During restores of 1957, in cloister on floor were found traces, very labile but present of partition walls, that defined the cells of Basilian monks that in front of cells have the church; in rule of Saint Basil therefore asceticism was constant; in fact in the rule of Saint Basil in sixt chapter regard solitude of monk is written:“To aid the soul to concentrade, is necessity live in solitude. It is dangerous live among whom tha live without fear of God, and refuse of follow his orders… if we want furthermore to continue for prayer continue, we must begin take decision of dwell in solitude". Other Basilian church, very poor, whose is a central nucleus is in Sermoneta, and name or titration is Saint Michael Archangel, original titration we don’t know, but today is corridor, usually called crypt, but it is original church  during 9^th century, and a painting attests the entrance of original church(Figs.9-9a), because the Christ painted on roof of this church, to right and specular to a stairs is same disposition of mosaic painting in the churches that has originally or to imitation of Byzantine style(Figs.10-12). The theological divergences between the two Churches has determined the scission, and Basilian order have to abandon these churches in Ninfa and Sermoneta, and Valvisciolo; but the churches were present again, and it is normal, but in Sermoneta a very dislike episode occurred, a war to Sezze Romano, a town very near, determined the destruction of the cathedral of Saint Mary, in 1236, and the family reigning then, this is Annibaldi, in person of Riccardo Annibaldi(1210-1276), commissioned the rebuilt of cathedral and rather than buy material, he used that of churches of Basilian churches of Ninfa; the proofs are the epigraph in Greek language in the cathedral of Sermoneta(Fig.12a), lozenges(Fig.4) of cathedral that are specular to those of Valvisciolo(Figs.2-3), and in epigraph of Greek text is translatable a small part that says:..θασσω that is place; may the original indication to monks to indicate the position in front of altar, in original church of Valvisciolo(Fig.1) whose plane is, I repeat, regular on quadrat, as plane of Saint Sophie(Fig.1a) and other byzantine church(Fig.1b)  Rebuilt of campanile of church of Saint Mary(fig.13) has same external facing of principal tower of Caetani in the castle in Sermoneta(fig.14), called maschio. Furthemore we must consider that capitals of cathedral of Sermoneta(Figs.18-19), are very similar to capitals of Byzantine churches of Ravenna(Figs.16-17, 20), it attestes the byzantine origin of model, and one structural element, whose today is very hide to vision of internal of church, because are alone some fragment(Figs.21-22a), but throught attention we can consider that during past century, before open chapels, long side navals, two arches allowed access to church, therefore this church, in origin was a centrale nave, that after on sides is enlarged for chapels, but these fragment arches are document of two access that, were destroied for built of chapels, and the access is backed away. This double accessis directly copied by architect Francesco da Volterra(1535-1594) in the church of Saint Mary of Grazie(Figs.23-24), that in 1581 was in Ninfa as guest of Onorato 4^th Caetani, and he worked also other progect, to church of Saint Mary of Mountains, today no visitable; but da Volterra has took idea of medieval double access of church of Saint Mary and has translated to this church.Other document of this Byzantine origin of this church, is topographical name of street where is this built; the name is Via Val Pagana, this is Pagan street, that if we consider it alone, is instinctive judge: “I don’t give damn”, it is name as other, but it is so? No certainly, it is attests from Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange(1610-1688), that written a dictionary of last Latin language, the last Latin that has changed often the mean of words, but it seems that to this substantive is same, because the word Pagus is: “Part in the region, and in region to towns, so towns in villages, city and how we called countries”, it is alone and would stay alone a small notation of last Latin language, if we not consider that during 8^th century Sermoneta was depopulated and only this church was a human presence, and this land about this church, today populated, but at the time only monks were presence, and certainly not much, because a clarification about word of “pagus” is important, because other acceptation, this is “Part in the region”, this region is Basilian region, because, after I have said that diffusion of this order in land of Sermoneta was very important, thereupon the Basilian presence represented a land that they called region; therefore the Pagan street is originally from pagus, as ecclesiastical region.  

Alessandro Lusana    

Fig.1a

Fig.1b

Fig.1

Fig.2

Fig.2a

Fig.3

Fig.4

Fig.5

Fig.6

Fig.7

Fig.8

Fig.9

Fig.10

Fig.11

Fig.12

Fig.12a

Fig.13

Fig.14

Fig.15

Fig.16

Fig.17

Fig.18

Fig.19

Fig.20

Fig.21

   

 

Venite adoremus

This essay is about a theological fight to painting, holy painting that during centuries 8^th and 9^th determined contrast between roman Church and Byzantine Church, this controversy has name of iconoclast, this is the prayers to imagines, that to Catholic Church is alone a means to reached God, but the Byzantine Church wanted interpreter a adoration similar to pagan religion, this is mere false interpretation but necessary to distinguished the Byzantine Church from Catholic; anyway we can reached a session of Lateran Council of 769 with pope Stephen 3th; in this session is confirmed that image can and must be worship: “Actio quarta. De veneratione Sacrarum Imaginem. Si ad sanctorum consortium venire optamus; profecto hic  omnia in honore Sanctorum, sive reliquias non solum corporum, sed et vestimentorum, sive Basilicas nominibus eorum memoratas, seu etiam imagines, et vultus illorum in quolibet loco depictos celeberrimo honore venerari debemus…”, this is: “Session fourth. About worship holy painting. If we decide to come to meeting with saints, certainly to honor of saints , or relic, both body and cloth and name of Basilica, or also imagine, and face of those to everywhere worship we must”; it is clear declaration of war to iconoclast of Byzantine, and the willing of Leon 3th, imperator of Byzantine to limit influence of religion on State, like it is in Europe; predominance of State and laic power of religion have to be predominant, because Byzantine has had the danger of Islam, a nascent danger that in 1453 conquered Constantinople, but at the time again beginner, thereupon was not dangerous; the question was between Catholic Church and Byzantine Church, and the causes were merely earthly, this is the power. Anyway we can consider that during this time and controversy the Catholic Church has anticipated decisions in finish sessions of Council of Trent, when was decided that the painters have to painting imagines with clear show of saints and holy imagines, so that the people be educated to holy doctrine od Church; I think that other the affirmation of Cicero: “Religio instrumentum regni”, also the imagines are “instrumentum” to reign; concept that from ancient Egypt is present and it didn’t lost during ancient Greek and Rome; therefore the Church has followed same method and same criterion.

Alessandro Lusana  

             

 

 

 

Ancient and new laws: continuity and break

I want underline that long time and thereupon history, the past is present and it is going to be present during future, an example is the French revolution and his laws, that is continuity of practice because costant habit, the Constitution of 1791 is presented to approve to king Louis 16th; this is practice costant, may they haven't aware that the French was republic, but we can consider that after centuries of monarchy republic regime was strange to everybody. The revolution certainly has contributed to human right and very famous declaration of Rights of man is reference to today right, but we can consider that  also this declaration is determined by a historical process that has had continuity and break; the first article of Constitution of 1791, although the republican was real regimen some step remembers principles, that although different because time and context are very different we can take it and think that to wit and history are determined, in fact in a French law of 1380, October precisely, the protection of propriety: “Асте du Régent, par tequel il promet aux habitans de Paris de demander au Roi l'abolition des impôts”, this promise may was kept; and we can think that propriety was alone to rich men, but the name “habitants”, evidently involved all persons, that in a modern states as French on 2th article is follow setting: “The aim of all political association is conservation of natural right of mankind, these are the freedom, propriety, security…”, and : “The propriety  is a inviolable  and holy right and nobody can deprive it”, and: “The ministers are responsible of all crimes made against the national security…of every crimes to propriety”, after two years from 1789 the propriety is kept as Middle age. Other concept that we can take is more recent compared to Middle age, and now today we can called nationalist, because it is typical of a king that has made history of French and Europe, this is Louis 14^th (1638-1715), third article, of constitution of 1791, says: “The  principle of every sovereign is in the nation essentially”, this is a right principle and it remembers a very famous answer of Louis 14th,  to ministers that asked who was responsible of State affairs, he answered: “To me and alone, the State is me”; this is, I am the nation I am the French. The break were monarchy and religion, because the feuds are just on hands of bourgeois from some fifty years, thank to Louis 14th, that has promoted bourgois to finance management, this is Jean Baptist Colbert(1665-1683) a very bourgois that saved very much; therefore the rrots of Revolution, that is bourgois revolution are in the major centralizer of king, it is very strange, but historical true. 

Alessandro Lusana   

 

…tironum ordinem: semper presens

A document that we can read on website attests that Italian poet, Durante Alighieri, called Dante, and may other, as undersigned were right, because Dante written in Purgatory: “Bring to temple the cupid seals”(Purgatory Cant 20^th and verse 93); the title of this assay is repeats some world of document, that confirms this opinion, a step of this documents says: “Cum simili processione iterùm die sequenti ad ecclesiam perductus, ibi novæ militiæ prestito juramento ad tironum ordinem est assumptus…”, that translated means: “Again with this procession during to days sequent towards church brought, where new militia given oath towards of Tyre order is took…”; this is confirm that the Templar order was not excommunicated from Clement 5^th pope, and the name is meaningful, because it says tironum, this is of Tyre and “ordinem” this is order; therefore Philip 4^th of French have stolen alone the moneys of this order, because it interesting to him; thereupon order in French was again present, or it gone back after the death of that king, because it is present in 1380 in Reims and excommunication was false, because written by a Dominican monks and no certainly from papal chancellery, that has written absolution of this order; and other consideration about excommunication order; if Templar order was excommunicated every religious could have impede access to this church, because they were excommunicated, and furthermore they could not give oath in church and by chief was wearing a belt, and this document says:“prestito juramento ad tironum ordinem est assumptus, et à duce Andegavensi accinctus balteo militari, antequam oleo inungeretur coelesti , aut cultu insigniretur region…”, this is with rite of consecration this order was consacrated; a curiosity, author of this document used same name that used saint Bernard to his book dedicated to Templar order, this is “novæ militiæ”, saint Bernard titled his book “Laus novae militia”. Thank you a Italian studios we now known the truth about this excommunication, but very much centuries we have need to know the true historical controversy; I want alone and personally thank this document because has given to us possibility to read this history.

Alessandro Lusana        

    

 

Ad perpetuam memoriam

During read of William Mlmesbury, fortunately in Latin, we can find some premure that to historical men is necessary, this is conservation of memory, and to this book Gesta regum anglorum, retook a point that the Greek historical man, Erodotus, has expressed: “This is explication of Herodotus from Halicarnassus, so that the works of men don’t be lost during time, and the actions of great And beautiful, made both of Greek and barbarians, aren’t without fame and particulary causes that determined fights”; Malmesbury that, certainly, didn’t know Herodotus, and certainly he could not read the Ίστοριας, because then the ancient Greek language may three or four intellectuals known, among William from Occam, but no certainly Malmesbury; anyway he said same preoocupation, because in the first chapter of his book he said: “Per haec senium oblivionis eluctari meruerunt quaecunque tempora post illum virum fluxerunt”, that translated is: “To their ancient time fight to exit with effort they merited for every human time flourish”; we can consider that indipendently one other and centuries distant, Herodotus(484 b.Ch-425 b.Ch) and William Malmesbury(1085 a.Ch.-1143 a.Ch.), therefore unkown one to other has had same preoccupation; but other historical man, Florentine therefore Italian, Niccolò Machiavelli, has expressed same fear but through different worlds, in fact he said: “I being gone to that time, to death of Lorenzo il Magnifico de’Medici, made exchange form to Italy, and after the following things, it are higher and greatest, to greatest and major wit to describe, I have judged god every thing that until that time I have describide  translated in a book”, but dignity of Machivelli is present in a step where he written to his costumer, this is Clemente 7^th pope, that has commissioned this book, but Machiavelli says that he don’t is going to be partial regard to medici family: “And because by your santity was imposed that I write the thing made from your forefather , so that was evident that I am distant from every adulation…”; thereupon Clemente 7^th wanted the history of Florence and certainly, but hide motive is that he wanted bought Machivelli to administration of Florence, then to Alexander of Medici, therefore some advisement would be very useful, but Machiavelli has collaborated also with Republican regime, and excape of Medici in Florence(1494-1512); therefore an aid to Florentine regime from machiavelli would be necessary; thereupon Florentine histories were a relevant commission, this is “captatio benevolentiae”. Finally I want use the last historical man that has cleared more than everyman his mission, Francesco Guicciardini(1483-1540), in his books about history of Italy he says: “For akwnoledge of these cases, so serious and so different, everyman can and to public god, take very much health documents…”, documents are teachings that are going to read by men, and actions and reactions. I think that Guicciardini has taught more better than others this mission of historical man.

Alessandro Lusana

 

Vox cantoris is biographical?

Louis 9th the Saint, so called after the canonization of pope Boniface 8 he has had also a biographical cantoris, he was  Jean de Joinville(1228-1317), aristocratic member and medieval man, it is evident from dates but above all to emphasis that he used to tell  biographical life of his king; same emphasis that adopted saint Bernard from Chiaravalle in his book Laus novae militiae, same wit and same way to tell, some step it explicative: “To his food he was extreme moderate, because I have never heard asked some delicacy to food or drink, as much rich men, but he took that they offered…During his conversation he was chaste because I have never heard a scurrile world, or called evil, as now is common…”, therefore we can indirectly know a superman on medieval version; same sources that mentioned Saint Bernard followed to his book, he heard cantoris in the places of Italy and Jean has took same told, but demonstration about his with very celebrative is other step: “He mixed wine to water. A time he asked me why I didn’t mixed water to wine. I answered that the doctors has said me  that I have the great head and cold stomach and it didn’t bear the wine to water. But the god king said me that they have deceived me, because if haven’t made it during my youth and I have made it during old age the gout would take me…”, also the medieval doctors known that the gout is determined by other and certainly they has said to Jean, but he though that his king was right. We must consider that Jean come to his king in 20 age old, therefore he has token by adventure and enthusiastic participation; furthermore he was very near to king, and we know it because he, partially credible but we give faith to him, he said: “Some saint worlds that the god king said to me and other. He fair e loved God over everything, and he has been favored to all he made…as our God is died to his people, so Saint Louis has risked his life and he has faced great dangers to people of his reign…”, certainly bullshits, but we can understand what was with of Jean, he has the 20 age old and enthusiasm, therefore that isn’t from biographical told is evident to other motives. Certainly it is biographical told is false and solemn alone; but we can deduce what was spirit of twenty years old during 1248.

Alessandro Lusana   

 

 

Human behaviour is law

This essay speaks about a treaty with Latin title, De jure bello, this is About right of war, written in 1458, in Italy and author is Alberico Gentili, some step of this treaty is interesting, because it seems foresee some conception that is very near to our: “They say in fact that is a right of people, and of this mankind uses, a right that human rational built among the men, and it is kept to same way in all peoples, this is natural right. Really  it is alone the consent of all people must be considered right of nature”; today it is automatic to think, but during 1458 it is revolutionary concept, that has foreseen our right, or much better the consent has been just adopted in Athens of Clisthenes, in Areopagus, where important decisions were voted from representatives of people of Attic; democracy is a question very ancient, although the master Athens sometime has failed.  And other step confirm it: “Better still the govern of a community and law power belong to majority of citizens, so govern of word belongs to community of word”, utopic? Certainly but very near to us conception, and it is shows that mankind is similar, after said. Some human reality becomes true today, he spoking about merchants he says: “The Merchants, instead, busied on their businesses , cure very little of truth and they usually tell to ambition; this behavior we can attribute to very much persons that we know, it attests that man is similar every time, and it isn’t alone a social context, but it is mankind that expresses itself. Other important matter that we can consider is other step: “Nevertheless much of thing that the merchants has said we can consider true, because they haven’t neglected the seizes of right of people that regarding to them  and their merchants. In fact the commercials belong to right of people”; it is normal both today and in 1458, but it is interesting because shows what level of entrepreneurship has had in Italy; this traditional costume that begun from Middle Age, but to us interesting this step, because represents that liberal idea of commerce, that we consider from Adam Smith, is really more old than Smith, and now we can confirm it because this step is also a moral document; this is a demotic opinion, that has back a legitimation both right and moral; this is the merchant had won. Actual consideration that we can find in everywhere is following: “it is very true also to no written right; in fact the custom in a city bonds everyone, and it is called custom of all city, although every not citizen has accepted it, actually somebody has refused”. I think that we can consider that it more than a teat about war it is a treat about human custom, that becomes law both moral and written.

Alessandro Lusana

 

A pupil: Bertoldo of Giovanni

A pupil is usually marginal presence in art, in store is less than very low, at last he isn’t Leonardo from Vinci, that has had distinguished, above all to two angels on left of Baptism of Christ(Fig.1); we know perfectly that Leonardo after followed his way and he has had immense artist, but he no certainly followed his master, Andrea Verrocchio; he followed alone Leonardo da Vinci! Differently from Bertoldo di Giovanni(1420-1491), followed his master, Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi(1386-1466), called Donatello, he rightly, to commercial motive merely he copied in little dimensions works of his master, and he took some point very innovative in sculpture, as prospective in high relief, we can consider The fight between Romans and Barbarian troops(Fig.2); an example to understand the sculpture perspective; this is tridimensional creation in high relief; he has used geometrical perspective of Filippo Brunelleschi, and has translated on the sculpture, and Bertoldo has used on moderate conception, but he hasn’t averted the analysis from Donatello; in fact on his works Hercules(Figs.8-9) and other work with Equestrian statue(Figs.10-11), he took from David; but he didn’t lost the taste of perspective, in fact on other works he reused this motive of false perspective(Figs.2-7), evidently costumers wanted it and he worked so because it is a revolutionary conception of plastic art, on material production Donatello inserted a immaterial think, he has rendered an abstract think, as reality, evidently it is costume or fashion; but we have also reference that confirms this use, a letter, dated 29^th July 1479, of same Bertoldo to Lorenzo de Medici said: “To this moment I have thrown chisels, scalpels, drawings squares, wax, architecture, perspective”, why architecture? He is a sculpture and no certainly an architect; evidently he has reference to sculpture architecture and prospective alone of high relief; therefore he is donatellian sculpture; he mentioned these peculiarity because these are major qualities of this works; but afore said these characteristics are from Donatello and he has follows his master; therefore it confirms that taste of Donatello, to translated abstract think on reality is certain.

Alessandro Lusana  

Fig.1

Fig.2

Fig.3

Fig.4

Fig.5

Fig.6

Fig.7

Fig.8

Fig.9

Fig.10

Fig.11

  

 

Socrates: an ancient psychologist

Socrates figure of philosopher is very famous (died in 399b.Ch.), but I want in this assay consider a character of his research of truth of everyone; he, following the witnesses, asked in plate of Athens, or in ancient Greek άγορά, through constant askes and logic, he determined contradictions and failed, therefore the theory of presumable philosopher failed all. But I think that his inquiry was certainly to research a rational method of inquiry, without contradictions, and after, I think that he was researching enter to soul of pupils, although he has considered herself a pupils and no certainly a master; but meaningful of some question, as γνώθι σαυτϖν this is, know yourself, it is the first inquiry about a human nature that we have, because Socrates wanted suggest to man: “What is your truth and why it is so?”, but Socrates known perfectly that every think is from brain and this is bounded to with; the Egyptian medicine had made much discoveries; and he known that every think is direct from intellect; therefore every think is from a size of wit; Socrates discovered man, but mankind, and his habit and way to think. He with contradictions of others he wanted taught the logic of think, rationality, coherence and rigor; he wanted teach first your with and after with rationality research of philosophical theory, but through the rationality limit that wit, his with in fact was very calm when he could escape from Athens, but  he want give last teaching, he with extreme clam affronted his end drinking the hemlock; I want consider that it was last teaching of Socrates, in front of death he die, although Crito give him possibility of escape; he refused and he took the death; I think that it is definitive teaching of Socrates; although in tragic context we must keep no alone calm but rationality, and consider that the death is natural to mankind. This think is conformed from other philosophical book but of Aristoteles, Nicomachean ethic, when the same philosopher said about the wit and human choice that are determined from wit; thereupon interest to psychological nature was evident; Socrates is first that discovered all mankind, included hide and emotive conditions; and he bore it to philosophical knowledge; may alone intuitive certainly, but it is a beginning, he could called the first psychologic of history.

Alessandro Lusana