Deo ordini maximo: the council of Trent and Catholic reform(1545-1563)

An essay that maybe can very false and a homage to Catholic Church, but it isn’t, because we must consider that moral condition of Catholic Church was very disastrous, and the motive of Lutheran Reform, helped and supported by economic motives by German principles, has had very much motives to become so great. Then the Church has remedied through a moral and organizational order in his intern questions, and it imposed his discipline also to practical questions, predication, and correction and canonize the Holy Bible, through corrections and interpretations very much strange. Some example is necessary, and I understand that it could interpreter as strong persuasion, but we must consider that the Lutheran Reform was very dangerous and very much persons has took it and has believed it; then was necessary also the childhood was saved by this doctrine, thenin 15^th April was decided about childs: “Bischops aren’t obliged but priest yes, they must current them or priest or other …”, and the Council has forgotten the material churches, in fact: “To edification  every church and to useful of every people, we has ordered that in every cities the word to Presbyterians license has given…” and this wit of order is evident to following words: “if deaconess are worth second Christ is told in gospel…”, this particular attention to moral behavior is necessary to the Church in that time. Moreover to understand the holy words and predications is necessary that the faithful know what holy word said: “In church when results are very poor and where very poor participation, the Presbyterian must teach grammar and theology to poor student, at last the grammar…”, this tradition is present until years 50s of past century in Italy, and this habit is valid to laic but also in the convents: “In the convent where studious is oblige they have simile lessons about the gospel…”; and external to Church: “Healt doctrine to defense and growth of this doctrine. In gymnasiums also public, where isn’t institution of these lessons, principals more religion to pity and charity they must leaded…”. I have given only some point necessary to understand that order in moral behavior and cultural has been very opportune to Council; by now the fail of Catholicism was evident, and it would be happened during other centuries and to other causes, the power has been always valid motive to use both God and men.

Alessandro Lusana

 

Easy science

This assay is about a method that Aristotle has tough to a easy demonstration of logic and science, this book is entitled Analytic first, and describes the method about the logical think and a way very simple to reach it; until begin it starts: “…this research is concentrated about demonstration and it is corresponds to demonstrative science, and after they must explain what is a proposition and word and syllogism, what is perfect and imperfect…”; why this simplicity? It is very easy method and unworthy credibility; but why Aristotle has been so elementary? I think because he has wanted render very simple a concepts, that would be difficult. Demonstration of this think is given by simplicity of description of this concept: “The proposition is a discourse affirmative or negative of something about something, it is universal or particular or indefinite. I claim universal something that is in everything or nothing; particular is in something or not is in everything indefinite…appertain or not without universal…” this easy concept necessary to Aristotle to explain elementary thing, is useful to show simple and obvious think; but why son simple. Aristotle had great merit of simplify explication very difficult, so that everyman could consider and speculatively learn, this is through observation of reality; and this method is a simplification of science, as syllogism, that very easy shows its nature: “Proposition syllogistic will be a affirmation or negation of something about something, on contrary it will be demonstrative if true and learned to that”, I call word where proposition is solved, for example: the predicate is predicated with or not be. Syllogism id a discourse to set something follows other, because to presence of these thing other followed…”, it is normal, certainly but Aristotle has simplified because he wanted give very easy all science; then syllogism is very simple because it is method alone. He simplified more: “ I call perfect syllogism that hasn’t  need of other words or concept…”, then he has made a method to science and he has given it to everyman.

Alessandro Lusana 

 

 

Carthago delenda est

This vary famous words of Cato, called after the Censor, certainly shows a great fear to Carthage, because then it was very dangerous enemy of Rome; but Rome during his expansion in Italy very rarely destroyed other cities, why Carthage has been destroyed until to disappearance; simple because Carthage has been a concurrent and a very obstacle to extension of Rome to north Africa, it could persuade all cities of on north Africa that Rome could be very dangerous and make accord and pacts very important and unsafe to Rome, because rapport of Carthage to other cities was very weak as compared to rapport of Rome to its allies, evidently competition was very strong; Rome  have had rapport to south Italy, and wheat of Sicily was very precious for Rome, thereupon it is motive Rome could not certainly stipulate to Carthage a pact, because it could be kept for some months, but a trade city as Cartage have deleted it after some fail. It have had just fought to Massalia(today Marseille) and Syracuse, in Italy, therefore Carthage was toward the trade and it was a concurrent fearsome and it has had much colonies in north African coast and south Spain and above all Utica on Tunisia, great trade city, that Rome not destroyed, why? Simple because this city was very useful to roman trade. Furthermore in 279 b.Ch., an accord between Rome and Carthage has stipulated a symmachia , this is an military accord that has obliged these two cities for common aide; therefore the friendship was very strong; but Syracuse in Sicily, in 272 b.Ch. half of people of this city has wanted aide of Rome because Carthage has come to Syracuse before Roman soldiers, and half people has been to Carthage and other half to Roman. We can think that this city could dominated by two powers, Roman and Carthage, they were very friends; but beyond military motive I think that other has been, what? Simple Rome has prewired that power of Carthage has took all Sicily, and Rome could be excluded from market and wealth of Sicily, therefore richness of Carthage would be very important. Ergo Carthago delenda est.An episode is meaningful Cato come to Senate with a basket of figs and modern interpretation is that a ship of Carthage could approach to Rome easily and same thing would to militaries ships, but I think that Cato wanted inform Rome and his Senate that the trade of Carthage was very easy, because a city as Carthage was building a port to 200 ships and this could service both military conquest and to trade, here Cato showed the figs because he has wanted a good from Carthage but certainly very much other could be come. In conformity to peace treaty, 201 b.Ch, Carthage have to be long from port almost 10 milies; it is very strange, and why? Because trade would be very difficult, Carthage was built very near to sea, but then milies was distance very important and graveous to trade, this is confirm economical theory.  

Alessandro Lusana 

      

 

Continuatio Caesaris: dictatura rei publicae constituendae

The title of Latin language is explication of this essay; this is continuation of Caesar, why? Because we can consider that the reign Caesar’s in 48 b.Ch, had been a restauration of Republic state in Rome and Empire, he has united two social classes, because these were necessary to empire, this is mind and pragmatic strong; the powers of Caesar and dignity extraordinary given to him were very important, and we can think that these powers, so relevant, institution of ancient Rome given to Caesar because framework was very dangerous and rebellions and riots were possible every day; thereupon Rome needed of a chief that was very friend of people and patrician, that faired rather love him; therefore reign Caius Octavian Augustus’s(63 b.Ch.-14 a.Ch), adoptive son of Caesar, has used same method, very pragmatic of Caesar, that after the civil war he has united all principal classes of people, patrician and plebeian, the first was the mind and second that hands; thereupon he united those classes because political disorder in Rome would causes insurrections everywhere in empire. In 22 b. Ch. he has refused dictatorship for a famine very serious that took Rome; Caesar refused crown in 44 b.Ch., he refused become king; the step of narration of Augustus is following: “Dictatorship both present and absent to me offered by people and Senate…”, and other episode that defines this intention: “three times on19-18-11 b.Ch. has been offered to Augustus the extraordinary magistracy as keeper of costumes and laws”, he refused but because this office he wanted share to other, ibn conformity to ancient costumes; certainly but also and it is necessary because he wanted keep a republican regime. Other costume that Augustus has took is a celebration of a cult, he said: “The my name is enclosed by Senate in Saliare(a celebration of an archaic rite with a carme, a poesy of ancient times, but name of Augustus has been written by Senate, in conformity of republican use; and  he took office of Pontifex Maximus, the more great office in religion, in 12 b.Ch., alone by people that given this role and he specifies that it no certainly from hereditary, because just Caesar has had this role. Therefore he has respected every political costumes of ancient Rome, and he, sometime alone, uses power that he really has had.

Alessandro Lusana

 

The drama of space: Borromini

The space is infinite as galaxy or infinitely little as atom but we are humankind and therefore we have our proportions, above all to architecture, here drama is from ancient greek δραμα, this is drama this is action, therefore we can see and consider that architect is very impressive,  classic, neoclassic or other; certainly in this other is present Francesco Castelli(1599-1667) called Borromini, he exalted the dynamicity, almost futurist space, Futurist matter of architecture, he has dynamized the space and he has more preferred the form than use, we can see Saint Carlo to four fountains, Rome, where all is dynamic and Borromini announces this strong vigor of perimeter on facade(Figs.1-3), but it isn’t alone and empty announce that hasn’t following, because it is continues to intern(Fig.4), the dome is likewise dynamic and although the space is very modest the compensation is in form, that between empty and saturated, as the columns(Fig.6), that has space that is long and short; this movement, very strong, is soul of this church and of Borromini. We can consider that Francis is very revolutionary, certainly it, but he has adopted a simple and elementary method, used from ancient architecture of Egypt, this is the geometry; he has used geometry to different criterion, this is; he isn’t rational as Renaissance he isn’t aseptic but he has given to space life, the architecture life and involve faithful or visitor, all is sacred in church because they must pray, but nothing suggest that that is a church. Same the concept that he adopted to Saint Ivo, other church(Figs.7-10) where he is likewise dynamic and contradictor as Saint Carlo, because the dome is similar(Fig.10), likewise lively and between empty and fall(Figs.9, 11), he concedes to façade a moment of Renaissance because concave shape of façade(Fig.12) is  very rational but he remember that Renaissance is past, because convex shape up is baroque, therefore concave are hands that embrace faithful and in church this dynamic spaces seems a theatrical stages (Fig.13); thereupon all is spectacle; also this church we can know that is so alone somebody has indicated, but we can confuse it to theatre.

Alessandro Lusana                 

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Every philosophy is particular and universal

We must consider that concept of particular in conformity of opinion of Hegel(1770-1831), this is from universal concept typical of philosophy a think can become inherent to object of concept very much human, therefore it is particular, from universal it is very relative, thereupon particular. We can consider that every philosophy is particular; Greek ancient philosophy was busy to examination about nature, therefore particular, through Socrates(died 399 b.Ch.) born anthropological period of philosophy, that is always relative, because on contrary the nature considered human and his wit, his nature, after ancient is Middle Age that considers through theology God, certainly universal, but it become particular to Christ, that was human, and saints that are human; philosophy of history is particular because inquires human become during time and phenomenological events, wars, economy, culture, therefore it is particular. The absolute spirit of Hegel is very particular because it is brain, human brain, thereby very human, philosophy of science is particular because inquires a matter of human knowledge, the science. Then is particular and universal because it inquires both universal God and human Christ, thereby it is human, this is particular, and universal this is God, but we can consider that theology can become alone particular although inquires alone God, because it is universal but is one, this is one concept, one alone, thereupon it is particular, because one alone object, as philosophy of history, of science, aesthetics, moral, of religion, these inquires alone one matter one argument. But we can consider that in its matter every philosophy, usually, takes every size of his matter, the aesthetics philosophy inquires painter, literature, poetic, sculpture, music, therefore it is universal in its field, limited to confront of philosophy inquire but universal regard its field, thereby every philosophy is particular and universal. The sckeptics considers everything opinable, therefore they are universal philosophy, they can say, but reality they are particular, because they must consider that about material reality we can't doubt, thereupon they become particular because they limite field of inquire and method.

Alessandro Lusana

                  

 

A head is worth a revolution

During the read of added of National assemble, born in France after the French revolution, in spite of emphasis and solemn narration of events occurred, a series of lies very incredible, but in 1790 and century following it had been believed very trust, to example, how much men that attacked the Bastille? In conformity with official version some thousand, truly they are 14 and three Germans, two French, three Belgian, and five Holland, all beggars that wonted alone steal armies so that they can sale to somebody; other lie: power has had in hands of people, certainly the National assembly could decide and in fact the sessions show it, but the king could dissolve the chambers, as today is possible in French, thereupon or in French is monarchy again or the the French republic has had took example from past monarchy, and certainly it is so. Other very trifling step of this read is very important if we consider historical moment; we are during 14^th November 1789, after 4 months the Revolution, and we can read, in these session: “The general wit of Assembly seems very uncertain, “I think that aristocracy made progress, and I think, very much, that some movement can give enthusiasm. The clergy has found in small cities very extreme defenders and among the nobility members. And they have defended them it is right and natural…”, thereafter we can think that French revolution was died just, because every revolution action that destroyed an order that has been used to centuries can change after centuries; in fact actually in France the president has power very important, as the king during the monarchy, but today, in France, is republic. This essay want explore the words that after aided, this is that, aristocrats lived and they defend they economical interest, and also the clergy, and step: “And they have defended them it is right and natural…”, is representation of common difficulties that revolution has had given his idea and with. This useful introduction has had necessary to conclude through a question: why the king has had guillotined in 1795? Answer is very simple: because French revolution has died and to survive, Jacobins have to guillotined the king because very much French were disoriented in this revolutionary new order, and Charlotte Corday, that killed Marat, on 13^th July 1793, is evident sign that extremism of Marat has had refused, Charlotte Corday was aristocratic woman that has influenced from Girondins, this is middle class of revolution, against the Jacobins; during 1795 in common people the idea of revolution evidently has died and uncertainness and economic problems were the principal motive to guillotine the king, because I think that very much French want turn before of revolution. This is confirmed from same died after some dies of hers husband in 1793, the ask is: why? She has not had never nothing power on French, she hasn’t never govern, she was absolutely strange to political responsibility, therefore: why? Because she was a symbol and she could be last hope to monarchy and she could conspire to return of monarchy; it is normal, but if French was all revolutionary this danger was not certainly, but this danger was present because the revolutionary wit has died, therefore the people could be to monarchy. Finally I want transcribe otherwords that are very meaninfull to this historical consideration, during the session in 14th November 1789we can read these words: "The administrative assemblies have subjected to king, because he is supreme chief of nation and ammonistration...". Hurrah the revolution!      

Alessandro Lusana