Economic lex artis

The statues of arts in Italy is a reference, certainly less important than others materials of art, as painting, sculpture, architectures, biographies and handbook, above all in Middle Age, instead to biographies is Renaissance, to Giorgio Vasari, the life of painters, sculptors and architects from Cimabue until our days, edited in 1550 and 1568; but the statutes are very scant, thereupon when we have possibility of read and shown some characteristic we can, no certainly must, consider from these boring read some information that can give to us news about the arts and his practice: the first is in Statues men’s of art of painting of Perugia city, translated but original is(ORDINAMENTA HOMINUM ARTIS PICTORUM CIVITATIS PERUSIJ 1366); we can ascertain that this corporation,  is born in 1366, before of Saint Luck academy of Rome, that is native to from 1478, year when are renewed his statues; but we can think that this date is posterior to original foundation, though we don’t what is year; anyway taking the certain date of Roman corporation, 1478, it thinks that the corporation of Perugia, an Italian in center Italy, is specific of painters, because in Florence, for example, the painters could signup alone to corporation of doctors and apothecaries, because one of most important corporations of Florence, even Dante Alighieri, eminent poetry of Italy, was signup to this corporation; anyway the statues of Perugia, indirectly, inform us that the cost of colors, to specific qualities was very relevant, so that is necessary a fine to who cheats, in fact: “So we assert that who promises give to other the ultramarine blue and instead he gives blue from Germany, he is going to give to arts 100 money”, (the Latin text says: “ Item dicimus et ordinam; quod;quicunqe promittet dare alicui auzurum ultramaìnum et dabit auzurum alamanie cotati dee artis nomiè pene .C foldos denari.ibi uere teneatur”. This is nothing that is important certainly but we must consider that the color of blue ultramarine then was very rare and costly because was necessary grind the lapis lazuli that was imported from Afghanistan, hence it was very precious, and the art work that uses this color could be very costly. We can also deduce that this statute is written after the 1366, why? Simple because is ordered that is celebrate the holyday of blessed Hercolaneum, born in Piegaro, near Perugia, to end of 14^th century, thereby 1366 is outstripped. The corporation have to defend the interest of painters but they have to be present, as says an article: “So we say and order that if somebody from this art is ordered or rector, if he come to meeting or with other name. A note about valor of material is both to color, as we have seen, and to parchment; in fact we can read an article of this statue that says: “So we say and order that the chief that now and temporary is liable must restitute the statute and codex of statutes…”; why? It is useless you can write a copy, or not? Certainly but the parchment was very costly, and the statute is a copy alone, thereby the chief have to restitute it and stop. This read certainly much short, can induces us to think that in this statute are present, although no explained, also economic motives and we can consider these rules are tied to frame economic of his time, that include also the economy, today 200 dollars, that today isn’t much, and thereupon we can understand that the job of painter, then, isn’t limited to gain, because the fine is very skarn, we must also consider that during Middle age the art was very short, alone with Giotto and the cycle of Assisi art become narrative and above all decorative.The corporation is also medical assistant because an article says: “So we order that if somebody of this art corporation has brigade both in palace or jail some was detained or illness in body he bears to health life chief and rector have to provide until to necessary quantitate. But health is both of body and the wit, because following article says: “So we say and order that the matters of discordance that are heard among the signup they must give to rector…”, I think that this article wanted avoid that these querrels and with usual beating or died, because in Italy so is normal, also in 14^th century. But this corporation protects also from others signup, because other article says: “So we says that  if somebody of this art takes a commission and this work isn’t satisfy the signup must work this painting until the corporation judgement it satisfying, and thereupon the painter is free of other duties”.

Alessandro Lusana 

 

     

 

Aristotelian evolution

The Categories of Aristotle is an evolution, very important, because logic and speculative of syllogism, because it treats with much argument that is hint in Analytic first; the continuation in semiotic  meaning, this is the development of philosophical concept that uses same tool, namely the words and his significance, that is a logic exercise, evidently necessary also to Andronicus of Rhodes(100 b.Ch.-20 b.Ch.), necessary to gather traits of Aristotle that were about the logic. The dynamic of think that has foretold the syllogism is the logic exercise that is evident and obvious and nobody has said, for example: “Everything is said of substance first took as subject, or it are in it as in subject. This is evident from single case that are presented. For example, animal is predicated to man, hence a some man; in fact if it don’t predicated to nobody of men, we can’t predicate to a man…”; it is normal and palmar, but I want show that it is criterion of syllogism that in Organon, this is tool, a book of Aristotle that included, from Andronicus of Rhodes that gathered the oral lessons of Aristotle, book that pools the logic works; and the logic is principal foundation of these works, and evidently these are pooled because each work was logic, and the Categories is first of these books, in fact is evident and very simple because evidently prepares the successive Analytic, that is logic work of Aristotle, he says in this book: “About second substances, the species is major substance of gender, because is  very near to first substance…For example, we can give a information certainly more precise and specific saying that he is a man rather the animal; in fact the first nature is much more specific of some man, the second more common, and describing a some three it is give an information more precise saying that this a three and not plant”; the logic and preparation of syllogism is on going; and the reprobate is in some steps of Analytic first: “First we must say about to what corresponds the search, and we must clear that it is corresponds to demonstrative science…”. The logic is evident and very easy to follow steps: “The demonstrative proportion is different from that dialectic, because the demonstrative proportion must took one of two parts of proportion of contradiction, in fact who demonstrates not give the questions but takes, on stead the dialectic is question is question of a contradiction. But nothing difference respect to building of syllogism…: in fact both who demonstrates and who askes thinks to take something belong or no to something…”; it seems the Socratic logic but now in rational and explicative to method and the conclusion; hence Aristotle has developed these concepts that have origin in the Categories, where he has introduced these tool necessary to search, but always keeping the speculative address of his philosophy.

Alessandro Lusana   

 

Aristotelian nominalism

The nominalism of William from Ockham (1287-1347) is a think, or better, a build of Aristotle(384-322 b.Ch.), that has his logic in syllogism, an exercise of Aristotle necessary to verify the rightness of a proposition; it is an exercise very simple, because we must take that first part of proposition, until verb, and second part tie to second proposition, an example: Socrates is philosopher and the dog is ugly; we must take the first part of this proposition: Socrates is and we must tie ugly, this is predicate of the first proposition; thereby: Socrates is ugly; this is true; in fact Socrates was all except beautiful. After it is present the direct of rightness examination, that is alone real. The nominalism differentiates between universal terms, as humanity, that is alone a name, necessary to gather similar things; thereby, general gender haven’t autonomous life, above all in intellectual works: this distinction and origin is alone hinted in a book(Ockham’s theory of terms. Part I of the Summa Logicae, p.15), where is written that: “For the medieval, the view that these two distinctions are related was legitimized by Aristotel’s claim that the universal is that which is predicable of many.” To grammatical build that has meaningful: “Nor the general terms introduce universals when they function as the predicate of subject-predicate propositions…”; this concept is determinated from Aristotle’s syllogism, because melts the philosophical concept with a grammatical rule; the syllogism, that we have seen above is same dynamic; thereupon it melts the philosophical concept and practical grammar, to after must follow the speculative inquiry; other philosophical work of Aristotle that has determined this address is Categories, where Aristotle distinguished the substance, the first of then words that are necessary to inquiry that truth, that in ancient Greek is λεγομενα; this exercise, that is, if we see well, an result of syllogism, uses the words to search the human reality, same method of Aristotle, that used the words to set the philosophical truth; it is the Aristotelian version Middle age. William Ockham known perfectly the ancient Greek, he was one of three European intellectual that could read the ancient Greek. The difference is substantially in method because on stead to Aristotle this criterion is necessary to search the truth to Nominalism it is an essential reference to make the scheme to know the science. The nature of semiological meaningful of the word and the analysis  made on the word, thereupon the valor of word, thereby the meaning same and essence is in Categories of Aristotle, because the philosopher begun his book with a distinction of synonyms, homonyms and paronymy, and the explication about difference is explained with clearness, but it is motive to consider that the value of word, to nominalism, is fundamental and when Middle age has took conceived the nominalism has took the method of Aristotle and has used it to shape the search; the inquiry to the truth proposition and his verification is explained in same book:“…a subject-predicate proposition is true if the subject is numbered among the things signified by the predicate term; otherwise, it is false”; thereupon the verification, speculative verification, directly from Aristotle is constant, because the inquiry is fundament of every truth; it is Aristotelian method, that refuse what isn’t speculable, this is visible; in fact, Aristotle refused the infinitive conception, because the infinite we can alone think but not see; the scientific truth is when it is speculative. Reprobate is other step of same book that, without say it, is manifestation of follower of Aristotle: “Ockham describes the mental language, which is the vehicle of thinking, in terms of concepts appropriate to spoken language”; I hear the judgements, that say: “It is simply logic and human, dear stupid”; I keep the stupid because it is normal, and due; but I want concentrate the attention about the criterion of search, because, the words: “Ockham describes the mental language, which is the vehicle of thinking…”, are the proof of Aristotelian of Ockham, why? Because he has seen that mental language is vehicle of thinking, but has seen it, hence he has adopted the speculative method. Aristotle in same book of Categories affirms: “When a thing is predicated of other as a subject, every thing is said of predicate are said also to subject. For example, man is predicate of some man, animal is predicate of man: thereupon animal is predicate also of a some man. In fact a some man is both man and animal”, other example: “When the genders are different and not be subordinated one to other, also the differences are specifically different: for example those of animal and science. In fact the differences of animal are terrestrial, volatile, aquatic and biped, but nothing of these is difference of science; because a science isn’t distinct from other science because it is biped”; it is speculative inquiry of Aristotle, whose logic is adopted from Ockham; it is furthermore speculative is also obvious, but it is so much obvious that nobody has said before, mentioning of Robert von Musil(1880-1942), we can say that: “the monument is so much great that nobody sees it”.We must also consider that the Nominalism is born in Scholastic school(9^th-15^th centuries), this is an philosophical address that has canonized the think of medieval age, on stead in ancient Greek think and the schools were very much, thereupon every man could follow an  different address.

Alessandro Lusana

 

Zoological theology

The Mediaeval encyclopedia of animals both fierce and no, commonly called Bestiaries, in Latin language, the Physiologus, may written in 8^th century after Ch., at last to Latin version, because the original is between 2th and 4^th centuries; an example of theological zoology, this is an assimilation between natural behavior of animals and Gospel source, necessary to author to learn the maxims of Gospel; in fact it says, regard the lion, that: “When the lioness gives birth cub is died and to third days when father come there he blows of cub and it relive”, the deep sense of this description is whole in Gospel and resurrection of Christ, that after three days is relive to his father this is God, in fact the anonymous author of this treat says: “So the omnipotent father resurrected  among the died our Lord Christ; furthermore regard to the antelope, description is as a fierce animal and other, but to faithful  man he said: “So you must make , man of God…your horns are the two testaments, through you can throw every sin, adultery, avarice, envied, pride, homicide, drunkenness, luxury…”; a geological description, absolutely fantasy is to the stone that is called “that is “terobolem” igniferous, and these magmatic stones when are near one to other this is a male to female they are burned; the advisement to religious man is that: “Therefore men of God stay very long by women, so that  in your soul isn’t fire of luxury…”; the sawfish in opinion of author has enormous wings, that has seen he alone, but interesting to this essay is that comparison of this fish that swims following the board is similar to men that begun with strong wit but after lost it  and pride, avidity and drunkenness are won by vices; contrary the board is symbol of right men that, through feat travel securely. The caradrio, with bird, that in Middle Age was assimilated to Christ, because he is white in fact he says: “The caradrio represents our Lord. The our Lord is candid and without stain, and regard his therapeutic propriety he can cures the sick with glance and he took herself the sickness and he fly to sky, as Christ that has took the sins of human gender and has flown to sky”; thereby  every object, inclusive the animals has a meaning that has near to religion, and these interpretations are derived from time, this is Middle Age, when all could relate to omnipotent God, and the zoology is immune from this interpretation.

Alessandro Lusana  

 

        

 

Pragmatic tolerance

In Italy, at last in Italy, Frederick 2th(1194-1250) is explained with every merits that he has had, undoubtedly, but he has presenters also with a tolerance that in Middle Age didn’t exist, because he has gathered much intellectuals that were also Muslims and Jews, that were his court and historical men; this is in official version of historiography  is an example of tolerance; but it is so or other motive has determined the presence of so much unchristian intellectuals? Certainly other motives and the principal is merely political, or rather the administration of Sicily needed also the persons that has experience of administration and that just has tried the political management; persons that Frederick has took from his father that has just proved the capacity. The names of Jacob Anatoli(1194-1256), Juda Cohen, Ibn Sabin(1217-1271), Al Khusrawi are intellectuals active in court of Frederick, that was orphan of his father, Henry 6^th,when he was three years old; thereupon he took what his grandfather, Rugger 2th, has had in his court; other confirm of this hypothesis is a step of David Abulafia(Frederick 2th, p.29); because he said that the system of management were the same of Rugger 2th. and William 1th that reigned between 1154 and 1160, that took as counselor Leo from Rayza member of Muslim community in Bari during middle age; thereby the tolerance was very pragmatic, because to William, and his successor, need managements with science and experience; certainly Frederick was an intellectual herself because he was very hungry of knowledge; hence he take profit to this presence of intellectuals, but it isn’t tolerance but a tradition that Frederick to whom Frederick was adherence, because he seen it from his born. Furthermore same author has denied that the court of Frederick was a center cultural very high, because this court followed that of Castile in Spain, where much translators by Arabic language and other; but every historic men that has written on Frederick has forgotten that he have to manage a state, thereupon he has need of clever managers, because his first busy was empire of his family; same historical man, indirectly, confirms this hypothesis, because he describes the character of Frederick(p.218): “Frederick was not a man to satisfy of usual explication…; he had a mind very scant incline to abstractions, he was attracted by  real facts of material word.”, it is says that the character of Frederick was very near to practical, typical of policy, rather than platonic toughs. Thereby Frederick 2th managed his empire, stirred between meridional Italy and Germany with practical way, and his tolerance is alone to use science of intellectuals.

Alessandro Lusana      

          

 

 

Historical fantasy

The rapport of human kind with fantasy is primordial in human being, and the epiphanies are works of this innate, and we can ascertain it in literature of middle age that is stemmed from ancient, a difference is present, stead to be a pagan divine is Cristian, but miracles and other are same. But we must consider that in opinion of George Duby(The thousand year. Religious and common psychology p.85) the monks studied the Latin language on ancient authors; in fact the Latin grammatical was learned on verbal way, but exercitation and translation works were on Latin texts, thereupon the history, this is chronicles are full of references of pagan word and myths, that are Christianized, because the source is pagan. Examples can be the a chronicle(Annals of Saint Benoit sur Loire), that in year 1003 strange and strong inundations, and the birth of a monster that his parents have drowned; I think that it is a history that has took from myth of Narcissus, that tried his image reflected in source of water and he drowned; but the Gospel took some source from ancient myths, because the Apocalypse(Capitol 20)says that an angel has tied the Evil to a thousand years; I think that it has reference to the myth of Kronos, this is time, that Zeus has tied his father Kronos, thereby the gods are immortal: but  it is also Christian source to a dream of Otto III, German imperator, has dreamed the town where is buried Charles Magnus, by now forgotten, and after three days of fast he indicated where is, and after the exhumation  the body was exposed to public, but when Otto dreamed the body he seen Charles Magnus seat on gold throne; the source are to both from Gospel, because the three days of fast are correspondent to three day of resurrection of Christ, and the four evangelist told the resurrection, and the Apocalypse is necessary to the figure of Charles Magnus, because on throne where seat the beheaded, the Apocalypse tells: “And I seen some thrones and they(beheaded) seated on it. Hence the middle age the chronicles has had precise sources, Latin literature and Gospel; often the two source are fused; we must consider also that monopoly of culture was in religious orders, thereupon we can read alone the chronicles that from a side alone, because the common people  was illiterate. Today we should thank the monks and their chronicles because these has told the Middle age and the history of their times.

Alessandro Lusana    

            

 

Two human documents

The judgement of Ludwig von Pastor(1854-1928) about Giovanni Boccaccio(1313-1375) is very ridiculous, in fact he said: “Boccaccio, with special predilection gathers, in his tales, the jockeys and insult to priest, monks and nuns and with sarcasm he propones it  as examples of hypocrisy and immoral behavior”; this judgment in the first book of History of popes from the end of Middle age, is a very headwork of hypocrisy; or von Pastor hasn’t read Decameron, and certainly he has read because he has expressed his evaluation, or, I think, he working to his searches in Vatican City he has adhered to morality of Vatican, hence he has so spoke about a writer that has told the human kind, that in Middle age has had these behavior, and also after, in modern era, to example, pope Paolo 3th(1468-1549) has had four sons, Ugo Boncompagni 13^th(1502-1585) has had one son, because then wasn’t scandal that a pope or priest has had a son; I retake a document that I have found in Archivio Caetani Rome(Misc.441/5), a boll, in 1262, of Urbano 4^th pope, said that Reginaldo from Sermoneta priest in Anagni now with a daughter; the Boccaccio written the Decameron between 1349 and 1353, thereupon 87 years before that the this book was written, and then a priest has had a son; other short notation; until 3th century a.Ch. the religious could marriage. The narration of Boccaccio is a portrait of human gender and his time, he was believer and I consider a painting of his time, because he described, with fantasy certainly, but he portrayed habits of his time, he his documentary of 14^th century in Tuscan; von Pastor is offended as catholic, and his idealism of sacrificed life of priest is idealized, and he took morality of his time; would be to von Pastor think it, that he lives in moral contest and assumes the current opinion as Boccaccio has took examples and episode of his time; thereby we can consider Boccaccio as absolutely true to von Pastor, that has a human document of his time, with reactions and behaviors typical of his time; von Pastor could have justified Boccaccio, that hasn’t need of justifications, if he have considered that the adherence to a conformist respectability in time of Boccaccio wasn’t; and during the last years of his life Boccaccio wanted burn his Decameron, and a priest saved this book; if it was motive to scandal a priest, in conformity to morality of his time, could have burn the book and the author; but evidently then was normal that priest have these behavior that Boccaccio describes, von Pastor is document of his time and Boccaccio of his time.

Alessandro Lusana