Scholastic semiotic: William Ockham

A philosopher of Scholastic is a philosophical address that, during Middle age 13^th and 14^th centuries, was the principal school for philosophers that from convent schools was extended to Universities, as for examples that of Paris, Oxford, Bologna, Napoli and other; a exponent of this address was William from Ochkam(1280-1349), British Franciscan that taught in Oxford, and in a his book he explains the nominalism; but we can think this philosopher as semiotic post Aristotle(384-322), because for me Aristotle is the first semiotic in the philosophy; the semiotics, that has had his independence as single matter alone in 19^th century, but that has its origin in Aristotle, that William from Ockham has read through a translated book that he mentions, as the Analytics, this is the syllogism, may from the De interpretatione of Boethius(480-526 b.Ch), that has descripted the Analytics of Aristotle, anyway William gives some relevant motive for this analysis semiotic alone: “All those who treat of logic try to show that arguments are composed of proposition of terms. Thus a term is simply a component part of a proposition. When he defines the notion of a term in the first book of the Prior Analytics, Aristotle says, “I call that a term into which a proposition is resolved(for example the predicate or that of which it is predicated) when it is asserted or denied that something is or is not the case.” Although every term is(or could be) a part of a proposition, not all terms are the same kind. Thus, to gain a full understanding of a nature of terms one must know some of the divisions that are drawn among them. As Boethius points out in Commentary on the book of De Interpretatione, discourse is of three types, the written, the spoken, and the conceptual(this last existing inly in the mind). In the same way there are three sorts of terms, written, spoken, and conceptual”. It is alone a speculative, hence Aristotelian, description of logic organization of concept that after we organize rationally, or at last we try, but it is alone semiotics, in Medieval time, that took from other authors this is Aristotle and Boethius, that are before of Scholastic but Ockham is in the Scholastic and interesting is the follow that indirectly Aristotle has in the Middle age, that is a datum by now certain, because Aristotle is every present until the philosophy of 19^th century; therefore in Middle age, also in Pagan authors as Saint Thomas from Aquino(1225-1274), in the Summa theological; whereby Aristotle is a presence always present, at last in intellectual traits, but to semiotic level, except Boethius, he is absent; the merit of Ockham is that he took the basilar concepts od Nominalism, but after he developed this concept through the semiotics, that is the first clear example of semiotics, and I say the first because Aristotle has had the sake of explication of logic search, thereby the syllogism is a tool or method alone, that Aristotle has explained, but his principal duty was the explication of search not certainly the semiotics, Ockham instead uses the semiotics, and for him the valor is alone the words, hence the semiotics.

Alessandro Lusana    

            

 

 

 

    

 Platonic essence

The Platonic essence I mean that the real essence of everything, that Plato(427-347) seen in essence; this is in  the nature of everything, I take typical example that Plato used, this is the essence of a horse is “cavallinite”, the nature of the horse, that for Plato is the correspondent ideas in the word of ideas, he thinks that it is the nature of the horse, and Antisthenes(436-366 b.Ch), cynic philosopher, that answered to Plato: “Dear Plato I see the horse but not essence of horse”, because for Antisthenes alone that is visible exists, other is alone the fantasies. It is certain but we can think that Plato with essence of horse or everything meant the essence but both that of word of ideas and that real, because the translation of in the real word become a concept material; hence the essence is real and no certainly abstract or alone ideal, as the real is everything that is in the word of ideas. I want alone add this my opinion to common concept of Plato as an idealist philosopher, this is that thinks the real word as a translation of ideal word, it is the mean that I think for idealist, and no in Hegelian sense; for me Plato think the translation od ideal word in the real word, but this translation, becoming real, must become also concrete; therefore also the cavallinite is real, and it is the real essence, and we can think it so, the concrete essence, this is the together of characteristic of everything, that in human gender are much, for example a stone is different, from other, for his nature although both were stones, for the man is same but our characteristic is in the character, in our wit, in our brain, that is the source of our wit; the difference is in it, this is in our nature, that is formed from the education, from the social context where we are born, and other; it is our essence, and I think that Plato has considered the nature of man and of everything but thinking to real essence, this is the translation in the concrete word, that is the real representation, although imperfect, but speculative of the ideas word; hence also the essence is an translation and also it becomes real; thereupon when Antisthenes critics Plato, saying that he doesn’t see the essence, for Plato the essence is evident; because in a man or horse the essence is evident in the external characteristic, that is the form animal or human, but after the formal shape the essence is internal, and Plato considers it as the nature of word of ideas, this is the true nature of everything, that is hide until it is expressed evidently, that is the nature of something, whereby neither Antisthenes neither other can see it, because Plato has considered alone the interior part of everything.

Alessandro Lusana       

         

 The nascent States

The birth of States in USA is summary descripted from Philip Mazzei (1730-1816) he begun with the Connecticut, he says, but I want also stress that the merchant of colonies was well present, and it is motive of the end of “revolution”, because the England needed alone the harbors: “A colony of Connecticut have to his origin to Massachusetts for the same motives of Rhode Island and his birth is same of epoch . During the year 1636 a great number of persons, disliked above all for religion, they quit, with their ministers Newtown, Dorchester,Watertown and Rocksbury, and they come and stopped on the bank of river Connecticuct, where they founded the cities of Hartford , Watersfîeld, Windfor, Springfield , and Ceux, and they were met out of borderline of Massachussets and they will meet in Hartford, and they agree about the way for the govern, and they will voted the judges. The year after some emigrant from England made the same thing in New Haven, that they founded on the bank opposite of Long Island. The two small colonies of Hartford de New Heaven continued to be governed separately, until they were reunited with the name of colonies of Connecticut, fo0r the document of Charles 2th in 23th April 1662. Around the foundation of New Hampshire. Among the big names of taxes on the merchant of captain Mason had reached among the different times from the assembly of Plymouth, and that are the source of eternal process, he has reached one in year 1629, and that he given to whole state of New Hampshire, and today is valid, and a part of near colonies near. An other name both his and that of Ferdinand Gorges agreed for a part of country given before. The 19^th August 1635 Charles given a paper to mason for gratification for the same country enclosed of 1627, and more to him he given the right of govern and bestow the honors…”. About de foundation of Maryland. The Lord Baltimore Se Guillaume Penn, founders of colony of Maryland and Pennsylvania were the first that reached the papers that the king of England given. Among who is passed from England to colonies for the religion cause, the knight George Calvert and the secretary of State, after Lord Baltimore. During the end of reign of James 1th he come to Virginia with somebody of different sects, that have had the same motive for exile. They being the zealous Catholic, but they were bad received for the adherence to Anglican religion, hence he turned to England, for asked to Charles 1th a paper through he can extent the Virginia state beyond the Potomac river, borderline that the residents haven’t crossed…this paper is dated 1632…The residents of Virginia protested again the dissolution of their territory, but they could not to avoid it. Lord Baltimore called his country Maryland to honor of Mary, marriage of Charles 1th, and he called to govern Léonard Calvert, his brother, Jeremy  Hawley and Thomas Cornwallis…During the civil war in England(1642-1649), Oliver Cromwell(1599-1658) got away to Lord Baltimore of his jurisdiction, and after Charles 2th given back it…”, and after with successor of Charles 2th got away again this power alone for religious motives, this power he took again during the reign of William 3th d’Orange(1650-1702), but a limit there was, this is that he must be the represent of a Protestant govern”. The important question is that the States by now freely nascent, and the real court of England was very tolerant toward the religion, and with William d’Orange it is more evident, because the politic sake overcomes that religious, and the symbolic act is a side of submission to king of England: “The kings wanted set new clauses on the papers that attests to their favor the right of reign and domain. For the example that to de Baltimore confirmed the oblige that every year have to give two arrows of Indian to the castle of Windsor”, it is could seem a cock up because a country that have had the fire weapons why needs of Indian arrows? Simple, absolutely nothing, but the homage was important because it attested the predominance of royal power also in the new word, it was alone a formal gift, that given to d’Orange the possibility of substitute de Baltimore with other if this homage there wasn’t, but evidently the motives for substitution of de Baltimore would have been other if he has been a very bad governor, but he was a very good governor, hence the formal homage was necessary to ascertain his fidelity to laic crow and no to religion. Mazzei as enlightenment took a principle of solidarity between the States, that then aren’t so, but he has stressed this moment: “The people made quick progresses in Maryland for some good motives. The Virgine given the food to emigrants until they took alone the necessary. The borderline toward the Indians were very narrow, and to residents in Maryland it wasn’t difficult kept the peace to them”. The history of States would be long and boring, also because without interest, but I want evidence that the England was interested alone the power of commerce. And after the “revolution” unique interest of England was alone it.

 Alessandro Lusana

 

 The birth of a nation

The title is equivalent of a movie of 1915, but this essay isn’t a parody or an reclaim to the movie, but a historical truth, because the following document is the birth of a nation, of USA nation, because from the last words of: “…our fathers fought, bled and died, and to hand them down entire to future generations.”, these last words, “future generations”, is the more meaningful, because the delegates, this is the names of represents of different states, that we can call provinces because this is the name used, have already decided the revolution, without an official declaration of war, but in the think the revolution and independence was a reality, hence the revolution or independence was present and consolidated, anyway the document says: “The represents were present in session of assembly and their name was Delegates, as says a session of Congress of September 1774, when: “The Delegates from the Province of Massachusetts-Bay, agreeable to a request…WHEREAS the Power but not the justice, the vengeance but not the Wisdom oi. Great- Britain, which of old persecuted, scourged, and exiled our fugitive Parents from their native shores, now pursues us their guiltless children with unrelenting severity: And whereas this, then savage and uncultivated desert, was purchased by the toil and treasure, or acquired by the blood and valor of those our venerable Progenitors ; to us they bequeathed the dear bought Inheritance, to our care and protection they consigned it, and the most sacred Obligations are upon| us to transmit the glorious purchase, unsettered by power, undogged with shackles, to our innocent and beloved of spring. On the Fortitude, on the wisdom and on the Exertions of this important Day, is suspended the Fate of this new world, and of unborn millions. If boundless extent of Continent, swarming with millions, will tamely submit to live, move and have their being at the arbitrary Will of a licentious Minister, they basely yield to voluntary Slavery, and future Generations shall load their .Memories with incessant Execrations.—On the other Hand, if we arrest the Hand which would ransack our Pockets, if we disarm the parricide which points the dagger to our bosoms, if we nobly defeat that fatal Edict which proclaims a power to frame Laws for us in all Cafes whatsoever, thereby entailing the endless and numberless curses of Slavery upon us, our heirs and their heirs so ever ; if we successfully resist that unparalleled usurpation of unconstitutional power whereby our Capital is robbed of the means of life ; whereby the streets of Boston are thronged with military- executioners ; whereby our coasts are lined and harbors crouded with ships of war; whereby the charter of the colony, that sacred Barrier again the encroachments of tyranny, is mutilated and in effect annihilated ; whereby a murderous Law is framed to shelter villains from the hands of justice; whereby the unalienable and inestimable inheritance, which we derived from Nature, the constitution of Britain, and the privileges warranted to us in the Charter of the Province, is totally wrecked, annulled, and vacated, posterity will acknowledge that Virtue which preserved them free and happy ; and while we enjoy the Rewards and blessings of the faithful, the torrent of panegyrists will roll our reputations to that latest Period, when the streams of time shall be absorbed in the abyss of Eternity. Therefore we have resolved, and do resolve, That whereas his majesty George the Third is the rightful successor to the throne of Great-Britain, and justly entitled to the Allegiance of the British realm, and agreeable to compact, of the English colonies in America—therefore, we the Heirs and successors of the first planters of this colony do cheerfully acknowledge the said George the third to be our rightful Sovereign, and that said covenant is the tenure and claim on which are founded our allegiance and submission. That it is an indispensable duty which we owe to God, our country, ourselves and posterity, by all lawful ways and means in our power to maintain, defend and preserve those civil and religious rights and liberties, for which many of our fathers fought, bled and died, and to hand them down entire to future generations.”.

Alessandro Lusana

 

Spelunca: the wickedness of Christianism

A step of Eneides a book of Virgil(70-19 b. Ch.), a national, or better an imperial poem written in the Rome for the August celebration, this the imperator August celebration, through the mythical origin of imperial family, directly from Aeneas to Cesar, Virgil tells of a cavern that Aeneas uses for to arrive to Hade, this is the reign of died, and the katabasis of title is, translated from ancient Greek κατάβασις, as the descent to somewhere, Virgil says: “Spelunca alta fuit”, and these words, that translated are “the profound cavern”, and that a anonymous commentator of Divine comedy of Dante Alighieri(1265-1321) took and he explained: “…and for this cavern says Aeneas and the Sybil they are descended to hell”; the origin of descend of Dante, by now is identified as from this poem, this is the Eneides, in fact was Virgil that in Hell and Purgatory accomplishes Dante, but I want identify the different think that characterized the rapport of the death of Pagan and Christian word, because Dante described the punishments that the damned endure for eternity, and the condition of Hade where that was inaccessible to life, and the souls have to pass beyond the rivers Styx and Acheron, the god that governed the Hade was the homonym god, that wasn’t bad, right and stern but not bad, Hade was also brother of Zeus and Poseidon, and after the victory on the titanic fight to him was destined the Hade, the figure of Charon the ferryman of Hade is same in Comedy, as the grassland of Asphodels where was souls that during their life aren’t neither bad and good, that Dante has used for the place in before Hell where are souls that the souls with same characteristic, and the difference is for the Champs Elise, a land where were the right souls of heroes and right men; this difference evidences more than other the difference, because the Christianism has divided three reigns for the grade of sins, instead in Pagan culture the sin wasn’t, in fact the unique sin was the cowardice, that in Hade was punished in a word obscure and dingy, instead the heroes are in the lighted land and in beatitude, but it is other substantial difference between Pagan and Christian believe, because in the Hade weren’t the punishments, because the concept of sin wasn’t, that after the Christianism has took, and condemned, for example the homosexuality, in fact Dante condemns Brunetto Latini(1220-1294) in hell because he is homosexual; as the condemn of Paul and Francesca, two brothers in law that have felt a sentiment that is beyond the simple affect, hence Dante set them among the luxurious sinner. It is a short portrait of the stiffness of Christianism, that Dante has took and translated in Divine comedy, but it is also a mirror of morality and customs that, during the centuries, have solidified, and these literary document are the major proof of think around the moral daily, and some exception is also in Middle age because the usury wasn’t condemned so sternly, because the morality, for the quantity, didn’t condemned it, and neither Dante, whose the father used this technic.

Alessandro Lusana       

 

                   

   

 

 

e pluribus unum: common fate

A common fate is rational if two elements have same fate, hence who are two entities, simple the Roma empire and USA, that to common have alone some characteristic, but that is important to understand the same human and politic behavior, the motto “e pluribus unum”, this is from much one alone, that is written on the American dollars is three Latin words that have a mean very important, and it is the first important motive of this assay; because the Roman empire, with distinctions both historic and economic tie these two historical phenomenon, the first, the Roman empire wasn’t a country, but during its beginning it was a village, that after is become Rome, but the extension of Rome in the Latium, involves other villages, no certainly peoples, that then are distinct for name and race, but race then was a concept very different by today, with race meant the belong to other village, other family, because the racial differences then wasn’t known, because the village were crowd by white people. Anyway some common habit unify these two geographical and human entities; it is can seems very strange, since the differences for the language, and for time, but if we think around some point, we find affinities; the extension of Roman empire, certainly was the duple of actual USA, but although the USA is more small than Roman empire, it has common things, the question is, what? Simple the first is the tolerance toward the religion, that Rome respected always, because remove a religion is worse that impose a new law, and Rome it known perfectly, therefore every people can kept its religion, inclusive the Christian, the persecution is alone a exaggerated historical tell; the Christin then were so scant that they not represented a danger. A document on 17 June 1774 form House of Represent of USA asks: “Rights and Liberties, civil and religious”, because the being born country has had same awareness that the religion was an identity for the human gender, hence this point nobody could not deny; in fact today in  USA the religions are different and tolerated all; second the political opinions that are different today, both between the principal parties and other, in ancient Rome same behavior, the civil war during the first century b.Ch. is example, but this war occurred alone in Rome, because the whole empire was absolutely pacific; also because the news around this war has had alone in Rome, because out nobody known something; in fact the source principal for this war is Caesar and his De bello civili, this is Around the civil war, I think that whole generations of resident in Roman empire both before and after this war have lived without know something.  It isn’t equality element, because the civil wars are frequent in much countries, whereby we can’t consider it, but we can, or better, we must consider the racial difference that Rome known after the conquest of North Africa, that Rome enclosed without racism, because Rome considered alone the personal qualities and no the racial belong; today the same behavior is used in USA, the personal qualities are valued, without racial belong or religion, and Rome made the same; hence the common destiny that has unified two entities.

Alessandro Lusana         

        

 

The wit of a revolution

I want alone consider that the wit of presume American revolution, that isn’t was, certainly, and I can proof it through the words of Congress, that then was alone an poor assembly, but an organ necessary to decision, where the English hasn’t had represents; anyway the words used in the House of Representatives are very meaningful: “Province Massachusetts-Bay. The House of Representatives, June 17, 1774.This House having duly considered and being deeply affected with the unhappy differences, which have long subsisted and are increasing, between Great-Britain and the American Colonies, do resolve: That a Meeting of Committees from the several Colonies on this Continent, is highly expedient and necessary, to consult upon the present State of the Colonies, and the miseries to which they are and must be reduced by the operation of certain Acts of Parliament respecting America, and to deliberate and determine upon wife and proper Measures to be by them recommended to all the Colonies, for the recovery and establishment of their just Rights and Liberties, civil and religious, and the restoration of Union and Harmony between Great-Britain and the Colonies, most ardently desired by all good men.”; this long step of The House of Representatives, in date 1774, because the year is very important, why? Simple, because it is anticipates the American revolution, hence the revolution was already ready, but not certainly armed, but a lone civil and religious, as is underlined; but in wit the revolution was occurred, because the feel of independence was already present, and the distance from England was very too for to impose a dictatorial govern in Colonies; substantive that is used also in step mentioned; it is ulterior proof that the young nation hasn’t shame to called them so, why? Simple because they were already independent in policy and economy, therefore the decision of king George 3th were may assumed for a decision that were followed if it was opportune to the being born country; and that the independence was a date already present in USA is confirmed form the motives that in 1774 are evidenced: “Rights and Liberties, civil and religious”, but the colonies can’t have the rights, they must obey to mother country and stop, the request of freedom both civil and religious is a request very strange, because the colonies must be depending by other nation that decides also to them; but this question was already overcame from the American citizens, because they were already free, hence we can also think that this demand was an false motive to reach the independence, and it was so, why? Simple because for England was impossible checked is somebody was Catholic or Protestant, and I think that to England didn’t to cure of religion, because important for England were the harbors, and no certainly the civil rights, the market leaves something from the religion, Vespasian Roman imperator(9-79 b.Ch), has asked rhetorical to his son if the money stunk,  after that he has taxed the bathrooms, the provenience of money isn’t important, because important is the arrive; hence the England was already to the independence, because it was present; otherwise if the colonies were very rich the England have used other politic system.

Alessandro Lusana