Aristotelian semiotic

The semiotic is a science that interprets the sign that it is evident or no, for example a road sign is indication to travels that want come to a city or other town, and it is explicit, but on sign is written indication that are signs, distance and direction, that is indicate usually with an arrow, but an arrow is useless to who doesn’t know the significate of this indication, but a driver knows it and he knows interpret this arrow, or an architectonical style can says to us who is architect, and who is architect; all are some example that we see every day, but by now it are normal thereupon our attention is momentary because we know perfectly the mean of these signs, that are to their nature always signs, and the semiotic studies these significance; in art history, other example, is iconology, an address that studies the signs and the meaningful of determined objects that in art history are called attributes; Aristotle in his book The categories adopt this method, some example: “Homonyms, synonyms and paronyms. We call homonyms of things whose the name is common, but the definition is different, for example the animal is called both the man and the painting, their name is alone common but the definition is different; because if we give a definition to every to each has the own. Its called synonyms the tings whose  the name is common and the definition corresponding to name is same, for example; we can called animal both man and the ox; in fact each is called animal through the common name, and the definition is same, because the definition of each, what is to each being animal, we are going to give same definition is same. It are paronyms every things that differing to case but have took the name from things that is equal, for examples courage and courageous”; these examples are clear and very easy, and it seems haven’t importance to a semiotic, but we consider the last example; the courage is a substantive, but we can understand this quality from behavior in from of danger of somebody, the is a sign, but what means? That he has courage, and we to semiotic discipline we can think that this is courageous, hence he has courage; the name is same almost, but meaning is in subject, in opinion of Aristotle, and in semiotic the courage is own of man courageous, equal but different to nature, why? Simple because the courage is a quality, it is a virtue, but is a substantive that can be common to humankind, however it isn’t so; because the danger that is affronted can be much different, also assume the a responsibility is courageous, but it isn’t lethal, but in particular circumstance, when the reputation is shown, but it isn’t lethal; when somebody uses parachute to jump from an fly it is very courageous but is different in confront of reputation; but we can understand the courage of a man both to reputation and parachute, and although we can adjective these cases as courageous the frame is different, same difference that Aristotle sees and identify: “When the kinds are different  and no one under to other also the differences are diverse, for examples “Animal and science; in fact differences of animal are terrestrial, volatile, aquatic and biped, but nothing of these is difference of science because isn’t a science biped”; this difference is evident and the meaning is and can be different both the courage, because has courage in different frames, but every courage is, and the judgement is equal or is radical different because are things absolutely different, but the example of animal, that we have seen above is very fitting because the man is animal, therefore it is equal to every animal, but the difference is in form, in brain, in habit, whereby what is this animal? A man, that is biped, also the bird is animal and it is biped, but is different although it is animal and biped, the difference is both in Aristotle and in the semiotic, because if I buy bird food, without confess why, the cashier can understand that I keep the bird or birds, because prepared the dinner with bird food to a family or host is impolite beyond to jail; I haven’t tell because I am buying this bird food, but it is evident; the semiotic is study of association of meanings that we can take pick of the daily life or the philosophy or other; when we can’t make this association thereupon say . “I don’t know” or “I am not specialist”, it is so because to us is impossible make the bond and justify some cause; this exercise is natural in man, but it is science today, and this science is the semiotic, that in Aristotle is in the Categories also.

Alessandro Lusana  

    

 

Academical contradiction

The contradiction that here I want consider is so evident that nobody has seen, a academic painter that is against the academic tradition; who is? Dante Gabriele Rossetti(1828-1882), that despite his name was British but evidently influenced from his origin, because he was son of a Italian patriot Gabriel Rossetti, banned from Italy and exiled to London after 1821. The contradiction is in his style, because he want outrun the academic style but he uses it always, and the principal of his brotherhood, this is take the style and the spirituality of painter before Raphael(1483-1520) is a failed in painting because he took the academic style, because we must consider that he lived in Victorian British when the form was more important than essence; in fact he repeated same style to face and subjects: same face and subject (Fig.1), is sama face, whilethe posture Rossetti has took from Guido Reni(Fig.2); what is characteristic that bond these painting? The beautiful of drawing, the drafting of colors, the line very perfect; the cloth of model, that is the wife of Rossetti, Elizabeth Siddal(1829-1862), is perfect woman and perfect model, the similarities is due by the same model, but the cloth is different, and the academic culture of Rossetti is evident in treatment of this matter, that is silky may, we can think that this accurate definition of textile matter is due from influence of Beato Angelico(1395-1455)(Fig.3), that Dante could studied very much and take the cloth matter; and may from study of this painting Dante has had the idea of this brotherhood; but an influence certainly radical to cloth of Rossetti is that of Peter Lely(1618-1680), a portraitist painter that in London from 1640 has portrait major part of British aristocracy, and an painting, above all, could influenced the light and formal definition of Dante, this painting is Portrait of young lady(Fig.4) and the portrait of Nell Gwynne(Fig.5), that keep the refulgent light of cloth of Dante; the line and drafting are of Dutch origin; hence the style of Rossetti is a translation of academic model of British, this is he took the model that before and after the Raphael, because Lely lived on 17^th century; thereupon the intent of ideal of the Pre-Raphaelite brotherhood is absolutely failed, because Dante took from after and before Raphael, fro contradictions it is very exemplar.Further is likewise contradictory models that a member of this brotherhood, because Peter von Cornelius(1783-1867), to his The Parable of Wise and Foolish Virgins(Fig.6), dated 1813-1816, he culls the model that changed to posture but, certainly, he took the Virgin in Universal judgment(Fig.7) that is took to central female figure, and Pontormo, this is Jacopo Carucci(1494-1557), is necessary to the female figures on right that embraced one other; and the return to Raphael and Athens school is to male figure on the center of same painting(Fig.11), because it took from other figure of Raphael(Fig.12); the architecture of Athens school was necessary to other building in Joseph Recognised to his Brothers(Figs.13-14)of same von Cornelius. The Raphael now is accompanied to Girolamo Siciolante called Sermoneta(1521-1575), because Friedrich Johann Overbeck, to his Joseph Being Sold by his Brothers, in 1816(Fig.15), to the figure on right from behind(Fig.16) followed two models one is in front of and other from behind, I intend two figures, the first from Siciolante, above mentioned, (Fig.17) and the second is from Raphael in mentioned School of Athens(Fig.18), that has suggested the from behind position.

 Alessandro Lusana 

 

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Economic lex artis

The statues of arts in Italy is a reference, certainly less important than others materials of art, as painting, sculpture, architectures, biographies and handbook, above all in Middle Age, instead to biographies is Renaissance, to Giorgio Vasari, the life of painters, sculptors and architects from Cimabue until our days, edited in 1550 and 1568; but the statutes are very scant, thereupon when we have possibility of read and shown some characteristic we can, no certainly must, consider from these boring read some information that can give to us news about the arts and his practice: the first is in Statues men’s of art of painting of Perugia city, translated but original is(ORDINAMENTA HOMINUM ARTIS PICTORUM CIVITATIS PERUSIJ 1366); we can ascertain that this corporation,  is born in 1366, before of Saint Luck academy of Rome, that is native to from 1478, year when are renewed his statues; but we can think that this date is posterior to original foundation, though we don’t what is year; anyway taking the certain date of Roman corporation, 1478, it thinks that the corporation of Perugia, an Italian in center Italy, is specific of painters, because in Florence, for example, the painters could signup alone to corporation of doctors and apothecaries, because one of most important corporations of Florence, even Dante Alighieri, eminent poetry of Italy, was signup to this corporation; anyway the statues of Perugia, indirectly, inform us that the cost of colors, to specific qualities was very relevant, so that is necessary a fine to who cheats, in fact: “So we assert that who promises give to other the ultramarine blue and instead he gives blue from Germany, he is going to give to arts 100 money”, (the Latin text says: “ Item dicimus et ordinam; quod;quicunqe promittet dare alicui auzurum ultramaìnum et dabit auzurum alamanie cotati dee artis nomiè pene .C foldos denari.ibi uere teneatur”. This is nothing that is important certainly but we must consider that the color of blue ultramarine then was very rare and costly because was necessary grind the lapis lazuli that was imported from Afghanistan, hence it was very precious, and the art work that uses this color could be very costly. We can also deduce that this statute is written after the 1366, why? Simple because is ordered that is celebrate the holyday of blessed Hercolaneum, born in Piegaro, near Perugia, to end of 14^th century, thereby 1366 is outstripped. The corporation have to defend the interest of painters but they have to be present, as says an article: “So we say and order that if somebody from this art is ordered or rector, if he come to meeting or with other name. A note about valor of material is both to color, as we have seen, and to parchment; in fact we can read an article of this statue that says: “So we say and order that the chief that now and temporary is liable must restitute the statute and codex of statutes…”; why? It is useless you can write a copy, or not? Certainly but the parchment was very costly, and the statute is a copy alone, thereby the chief have to restitute it and stop. This read certainly much short, can induces us to think that in this statute are present, although no explained, also economic motives and we can consider these rules are tied to frame economic of his time, that include also the economy, today 200 dollars, that today isn’t much, and thereupon we can understand that the job of painter, then, isn’t limited to gain, because the fine is very skarn, we must also consider that during Middle age the art was very short, alone with Giotto and the cycle of Assisi art become narrative and above all decorative.The corporation is also medical assistant because an article says: “So we order that if somebody of this art corporation has brigade both in palace or jail some was detained or illness in body he bears to health life chief and rector have to provide until to necessary quantitate. But health is both of body and the wit, because following article says: “So we say and order that the matters of discordance that are heard among the signup they must give to rector…”, I think that this article wanted avoid that these querrels and with usual beating or died, because in Italy so is normal, also in 14^th century. But this corporation protects also from others signup, because other article says: “So we says that  if somebody of this art takes a commission and this work isn’t satisfy the signup must work this painting until the corporation judgement it satisfying, and thereupon the painter is free of other duties”.Also the secret decisions are saved from this corporation because other article says that: “So we say and order that after said meeting nothing must be seize if no expressed order of chief…”, we can think that the decisions could be confessed to others, after all the secret of corporation could be useless; the justification of this article is following article, this is 29^th that says: “So we say and order that all painters must stay in judgement in front of this art corporation and all signup…” evidently they have to save discretion of all procedures and discretion to every painter. But also the possibility of somebody have will of predominance in the corporation have to be deleted; in fact the chief they must change every six months: “So we say and order that chief of this art is elected every six months…”, so that nobody takes the power, limited certainly, but a power, to make that he want; in fact in article 31th:“So we say and order that  nobody can or must to future make statues or sorting against some order present in this book”. The agreements must be right and clear, in fact the article 36^th says: “So we order that if somebody aided other or works to other every work must be agreed with a contract…”; this article is thought to avoid that somebody doesn’t pay the inscription to this corporation, in fact the following of this article says: “neither of prize of this work”, evidently somebody or much have thought that pay inscription or not make it would be same. In ancient Rome it says usually: “si pacem vis para bellum”, this is if you want the peace prepare the war, so that enemy is deterred to continue the preparations of war to you; this is Latin proverb, in other contest, but we must consider that the statues of art has made better, why? Simple because in 37^th article says: “So that if somebody of this art corporation begins some work without license of this corporation…under fine of 100 florins…”; why? Simple because if the corporation doesn’t given the license it means that the work is going to pay very scant or is suspect that is cheat, thereupon if signup accept it the corporation can’t defender the painter; the fame of corporation could be compromised, and every painters vote against the single painter to exclude him from signup, thereby the painter must authorize before from corporation.This corporation, certainly more better defensive of other that we have seen, in article 10 of this statute says: “About vacancy in religious holyday and about the secret guards. We order that nobody painter can’t works during the religious holyday ordered from Church, and holyday is ordered from consuls of this corporation. We  order that the rector must enroll secret guards that must accuse whom works during these holyday, and the rector must swear to them that the must not accuse somebody to hate or wickedness…”, this is normal today but then was normal that some that accused a guy was also determined by wickedness and envy; rightly we can know today what was the wit of that time; in fact we can hypothesize it, but in this article is considered this eventuality, thereupon this case was possible and frequent. In fact to avoid this event the article 9th establishes the fine to accuser that must pay a sum, both he is right or not. The economic need of this corporation is evident in article 11^th, because everybody is foreigner, because not resident in Siena, must pay a tax to this corporation; and safeguard of local painters is in same article because the rector must order to chief of laboratory of art that they can’t take a pupil that is foreign, if they haven’t paid a tax; this article could seems very unjust, but we must think that the pupils of laboratory of painters were very much, thereupon a chief of laboratory could pay a tax to a foreign pupil, may save this tax and learn art to a local pupil. The wit of this corporation is evident in article 12^th because it established that: “If somebody protest to a painter the same corporation give guarantee of painter, hence: “We order that anyone extern to corporation protests to a painter is allowed that the corporation asks a guarantee to this guy that protest…”, evidently protests to painters, then, were much, and the corporation has defended itself with this article. The article 13^th orders the sums necessary to survive of this corporation, and in box where money is also the book to gain and expenses. The painters must be defend but they must work rightly, in fact the article 14^th order to signup that: “The painters don’t use a poor gold or poor color, and he must use different colors from his promise…”, and follows the list of these colors; it is necessary because the corporation, to somebody that protests, it must guarantee to painter, that have to make a right work. To view point stylistic and chronological, we could hypothesize the date of this statute because it says about gold, very used to painting during Middle age. Beyond the secret guards the secret every signup must keep, today in policy is same, in fact the article 15^th says: “About of don’t reveal something of meeting”, the discretion of every painters were necessary to survive of every painters, because if somebody has cheated the corporation must defend painter but the reputation could be compromised. Other note we can think, what is? Simple that the sessions and the dialogues of these meeting aren’t; we can consider that these meeting were secret or is other motive? The motive is elementary and merely material; alone the important documents were written on parchment, material to write more diffused in Middle age, but alone when it were important and the meetings of a corporation were nothing, and after this article confess the material reality because  it said: “About of don’t reveal something of meeting”, but reveal is oral action and no written; thereupon somebody could not show out the verbal of meeting because it weren’t. Hence we can understand the time of handwriting of this document through the attentive read of this document. The nepotism, typical in Italy, is a ancient defect, because the article 16^th says: “Nobody can elect the rector that is kinsman…everybody that are going to vote the rector they can’t elect somebody that is kinsman, as carnal brother or cousin or colleague to labor art…”, this article wanted save unjust preference to familiar gain, it is evident, but two notes are important and twice regard costume of Middle age: the first is that this article mentioned the carnal brother, why? Because brother could be also from other women different from mother, then it is normal, and the second is that the cousin brother; today it is impossible, a cousin is so and stop, not certainly a brother, why this name? It is heredity of ancient Rome, where the family enclosed also the waiters and employees of house, thereupon in Middle age the cousin were also brother. The article 21th forbids that a chief can’t condemn or absolves somebody; it is normal in this time and in an institution, but we turn to article 16th, where is forbid the election of kinsman, because a chief could absolve the kinsman or other alone to proximity. Same motive of article 21th that establishs that nobody can’t contradict the rector…”, thereby it is motive principal of article 16^th because neither the kinsman could contradict him. To article 28^th we can understand because the rector is so important, in fact it says: “The rector can and must justify and protect signup to corporation of art”. We order that the rector or lord of this art can justify every sign up and every subject and know about every work that a painter has made…”, it is necessary to defend the painters of corporation; a note I think important; the name of  rector is lord, in custom of Medieval language that identify the lord with chief of a feud, that often has had absolutely power. It isn’t the case, first because the corporation is a feud and second because the following article this is 29^th says: “Every official must justify his lordship. We order that every official of this corporation justify his administration and to his lordship, and everything that he has made…”, thereupon he must give valid motives of his task. A contradiction is evident in article 34^th because after that very much articles have promoted the brotherhood in this article we find that every sign up can  denounces every painter that has transgressed the statute, thereupon the wit of fraternity is secondary and useless, apparently but we must think that the protection of corporation was the first condition, because it protect the community of painters and no the single.That I have said to Dante Alighieri, this is that he was si9gn up to corporation of Doctors and Apothecaries it seems valid to artisans in Florence; the statute of freshmen keeps name of artisans that nothing tides to painting, but why? Evidently this corporation, above all during 15^th century in Florence has took importance and consequently the corporation has become important, hence much artisans sign up they signed up. The statute of Florence is in years 1386, and we can find artisans different as: “Agnolo di Lippo che fa i vetri 1350”, a glassmaker in 1350, “Andrea di Domenicho forzerinaio 1421” a worker with specialization on coffer; an “Andrea di Piero sarto 1424” tailor; a baker “Antonio di Domenico fornaio 1424”, a maker of cheese, “Antonio di Bartolomeo formagiaio”, an embroiderer, “ Galiano di Michele richamatore 1450”

 Alessandro Lusana 

 

     

 

Aristotelian evolution

The Categories of Aristotle is an evolution, very important, because logic and speculative of syllogism, because it treats with much argument that is hint in Analytic first; the continuation in semiotic  meaning, this is the development of philosophical concept that uses same tool, namely the words and his significance, that is a logic exercise, evidently necessary also to Andronicus of Rhodes(100 b.Ch.-20 b.Ch.), necessary to gather traits of Aristotle that were about the logic. The dynamic of think that has foretold the syllogism is the logic exercise that is evident and obvious and nobody has said, for example: “Everything is said of substance first took as subject, or it are in it as in subject. This is evident from single case that are presented. For example, animal is predicated to man, hence a some man; in fact if it don’t predicated to nobody of men, we can’t predicate to a man…”; it is normal and palmar, but I want show that it is criterion of syllogism that in Organon, this is tool, a book of Aristotle that included, from Andronicus of Rhodes that gathered the oral lessons of Aristotle, book that pools the logic works; and the logic is principal foundation of these works, and evidently these are pooled because each work was logic, and the Categories is first of these books, in fact is evident and very simple because evidently prepares the successive Analytic, that is logic work of Aristotle, he says in this book: “About second substances, the species is major substance of gender, because is  very near to first substance…For example, we can give a information certainly more precise and specific saying that he is a man rather the animal; in fact the first nature is much more specific of some man, the second more common, and describing a some three it is give an information more precise saying that this a three and not plant”; the logic and preparation of syllogism is on going; and the reprobate is in some steps of Analytic first: “First we must say about to what corresponds the search, and we must clear that it is corresponds to demonstrative science…”. The logic is evident and very easy to follow steps: “The demonstrative proportion is different from that dialectic, because the demonstrative proportion must took one of two parts of proportion of contradiction, in fact who demonstrates not give the questions but takes, on stead the dialectic is question is question of a contradiction. But nothing difference respect to building of syllogism…: in fact both who demonstrates and who askes thinks to take something belong or no to something…”; it seems the Socratic logic but now in rational and explicative to method and the conclusion; hence Aristotle has developed these concepts that have origin in the Categories, where he has introduced these tool necessary to search, but always keeping the speculative address of his philosophy.

Alessandro Lusana   

 

Aristotelian nominalism

The nominalism of William from Ockham (1287-1347) is a think, or better, a build of Aristotle(384-322 b.Ch.), that has his logic in syllogism, an exercise of Aristotle necessary to verify the rightness of a proposition; it is an exercise very simple, because we must take that first part of proposition, until verb, and second part tie to second proposition, an example: Socrates is philosopher and the dog is ugly; we must take the first part of this proposition: Socrates is and we must tie ugly, this is predicate of the first proposition; thereby: Socrates is ugly; this is true; in fact Socrates was all except beautiful. After it is present the direct of rightness examination, that is alone real. The nominalism differentiates between universal terms, as humanity, that is alone a name, necessary to gather similar things; thereby, general gender haven’t autonomous life, above all in intellectual works: this distinction and origin is alone hinted in a book(Ockham’s theory of terms. Part I of the Summa Logicae, p.15), where is written that: “For the medieval, the view that these two distinctions are related was legitimized by Aristotel’s claim that the universal is that which is predicable of many.” To grammatical build that has meaningful: “Nor the general terms introduce universals when they function as the predicate of subject-predicate propositions…”; this concept is determinated from Aristotle’s syllogism, because melts the philosophical concept with a grammatical rule; the syllogism, that we have seen above is same dynamic; thereupon it melts the philosophical concept and practical grammar, to after must follow the speculative inquiry; other philosophical work of Aristotle that has determined this address is Categories, where Aristotle distinguished the substance, the first of then words that are necessary to inquiry that truth, that in ancient Greek is λεγομενα; this exercise, that is, if we see well, an result of syllogism, uses the words to search the human reality, same method of Aristotle, that used the words to set the philosophical truth; it is the Aristotelian version Middle age. William Ockham known perfectly the ancient Greek, he was one of three European intellectual that could read the ancient Greek. The difference is substantially in method because on stead to Aristotle this criterion is necessary to search the truth to Nominalism it is an essential reference to make the scheme to know the science. The nature of semiological meaningful of the word and the analysis  made on the word, thereupon the valor of word, thereby the meaning same and essence is in Categories of Aristotle, because the philosopher begun his book with a distinction of synonyms, homonyms and paronymy, and the explication about difference is explained with clearness, but it is motive to consider that the value of word, to nominalism, is fundamental and when Middle age has took conceived the nominalism has took the method of Aristotle and has used it to shape the search; the inquiry to the truth proposition and his verification is explained in same book:“…a subject-predicate proposition is true if the subject is numbered among the things signified by the predicate term; otherwise, it is false”; thereupon the verification, speculative verification, directly from Aristotle is constant, because the inquiry is fundament of every truth; it is Aristotelian method, that refuse what isn’t speculable, this is visible; in fact, Aristotle refused the infinitive conception, because the infinite we can alone think but not see; the scientific truth is when it is speculative. Reprobate is other step of same book that, without say it, is manifestation of follower of Aristotle: “Ockham describes the mental language, which is the vehicle of thinking, in terms of concepts appropriate to spoken language”; I hear the judgements, that say: “It is simply logic and human, dear stupid”; I keep the stupid because it is normal, and due; but I want concentrate the attention about the criterion of search, because, the words: “Ockham describes the mental language, which is the vehicle of thinking…”, are the proof of Aristotelian of Ockham, why? Because he has seen that mental language is vehicle of thinking, but has seen it, hence he has adopted the speculative method. Aristotle in same book of Categories affirms: “When a thing is predicated of other as a subject, every thing is said of predicate are said also to subject. For example, man is predicate of some man, animal is predicate of man: thereupon animal is predicate also of a some man. In fact a some man is both man and animal”, other example: “When the genders are different and not be subordinated one to other, also the differences are specifically different: for example those of animal and science. In fact the differences of animal are terrestrial, volatile, aquatic and biped, but nothing of these is difference of science; because a science isn’t distinct from other science because it is biped”; it is speculative inquiry of Aristotle, whose logic is adopted from Ockham; it is furthermore speculative is also obvious, but it is so much obvious that nobody has said before, mentioning of Robert von Musil(1880-1942), we can say that: “the monument is so much great that nobody sees it”.We must also consider that the Nominalism is born in Scholastic school(9^th-15^th centuries), this is an philosophical address that has canonized the think of medieval age, on stead in ancient Greek think and the schools were very much, thereupon every man could follow an  different address.

Alessandro Lusana

 

Zoological theology

The Mediaeval encyclopedia of animals both fierce and no, commonly called Bestiaries, in Latin language, the Physiologus, may written in 8^th century after Ch., at last to Latin version, because the original is between 2th and 4^th centuries; an example of theological zoology, this is an assimilation between natural behavior of animals and Gospel source, necessary to author to learn the maxims of Gospel; in fact it says, regard the lion, that: “When the lioness gives birth cub is died and to third days when father come there he blows of cub and it relive”, the deep sense of this description is whole in Gospel and resurrection of Christ, that after three days is relive to his father this is God, in fact the anonymous author of this treat says: “So the omnipotent father resurrected  among the died our Lord Christ; furthermore regard to the antelope, description is as a fierce animal and other, but to faithful  man he said: “So you must make , man of God…your horns are the two testaments, through you can throw every sin, adultery, avarice, envied, pride, homicide, drunkenness, luxury…”; a geological description, absolutely fantasy is to the stone that is called “that is “terobolem” igniferous, and these magmatic stones when are near one to other this is a male to female they are burned; the advisement to religious man is that: “Therefore men of God stay very long by women, so that  in your soul isn’t fire of luxury…”; the sawfish in opinion of author has enormous wings, that has seen he alone, but interesting to this essay is that comparison of this fish that swims following the board is similar to men that begun with strong wit but after lost it  and pride, avidity and drunkenness are won by vices; contrary the board is symbol of right men that, through feat travel securely. The caradrio, with bird, that in Middle Age was assimilated to Christ, because he is white in fact he says: “The caradrio represents our Lord. The our Lord is candid and without stain, and regard his therapeutic propriety he can cures the sick with glance and he took herself the sickness and he fly to sky, as Christ that has took the sins of human gender and has flown to sky”; thereby  every object, inclusive the animals has a meaning that has near to religion, and these interpretations are derived from time, this is Middle Age, when all could relate to omnipotent God, and the zoology is immune from this interpretation.

Alessandro Lusana  

 

        

 

Pragmatic tolerance

In Italy, at last in Italy, Frederick 2th(1194-1250) is explained with every merits that he has had, undoubtedly, but he has presenters also with a tolerance that in Middle Age didn’t exist, because he has gathered much intellectuals that were also Muslims and Jews, that were his court and historical men; this is in official version of historiography  is an example of tolerance; but it is so or other motive has determined the presence of so much unchristian intellectuals? Certainly other motives and the principal is merely political, or rather the administration of Sicily needed also the persons that has experience of administration and that just has tried the political management; persons that Frederick has took from his father that has just proved the capacity. The names of Jacob Anatoli(1194-1256), Juda Cohen, Ibn Sabin(1217-1271), Al Khusrawi are intellectuals active in court of Frederick, that was orphan of his father, Henry 6^th,when he was three years old; thereupon he took what his grandfather, Rugger 2th, has had in his court; other confirm of this hypothesis is a step of David Abulafia(Frederick 2th, p.29); because he said that the system of management were the same of Rugger 2th. and William 1th that reigned between 1154 and 1160, that took as counselor Leo from Rayza member of Muslim community in Bari during middle age; thereby the tolerance was very pragmatic, because to William, and his successor, need managements with science and experience; certainly Frederick was an intellectual herself because he was very hungry of knowledge; hence he take profit to this presence of intellectuals, but it isn’t tolerance but a tradition that Frederick to whom Frederick was adherence, because he seen it from his born. Furthermore same author has denied that the court of Frederick was a center cultural very high, because this court followed that of Castile in Spain, where much translators by Arabic language and other; but every historic men that has written on Frederick has forgotten that he have to manage a state, thereupon he has need of clever managers, because his first busy was empire of his family; same historical man, indirectly, confirms this hypothesis, because he describes the character of Frederick(p.218): “Frederick was not a man to satisfy of usual explication…; he had a mind very scant incline to abstractions, he was attracted by  real facts of material word.”, it is says that the character of Frederick was very near to practical, typical of policy, rather than platonic toughs. Thereby Frederick 2th managed his empire, stirred between meridional Italy and Germany with practical way, and his tolerance is alone to use science of intellectuals.

Alessandro Lusana