Scientific danger between pope and cardinals: Galileo Galilei

The process to Galileo Galilei(1564-1642), suffered a process in years 1633 because he held the Copernican theory of universe, that rightly hypothesized the sun in the center of universe; Galileo in fronted this process and he have to deny all his theory, alone formally because he after the Roman process gone in Pisa and other cities. Why the Church was so worry to theoretical adherence? We must consider the politic contest above all, because it is the first motive to deny validity to Galileo, and the first clue for hypothesize it is in a painting of Andrea Sacchi(1599-1661), a painter that painted a fresco very interesting fro this contest because it is the confutation of process to Galileo, in fact Sacchi, among 1629-1633, has painted the Allegory of Divine sapience(Fig.1), where he represented the word the is distant from sun and it isn’t to center, hence the fresco of Sacchi was an heretical painting or no? Certainly no, because the pope Urban 8^th has commissioned this painting, therefore the pope was heretical represented, or may Urban 8^th (1623-1644), of astronomy and other matters he didn’t care? The second hypothesize is certainly more credible, but repeat the historical context is important; because the Church has left much power in Europe, much nations were become Protestant and the danger that other follow this example was everyday present, hence to reinforce its power have to contrast every think or discovery that could contrast to scientific think of the Church. The witness, at last from depositions and documents of this process, a friar Father Caccini  has evidenced that he has heard Galileo that said other wrong opinions, type: “The miracles that it says made by Saints, aren’t true miracles. He has nominated some other witnesses and whole exam we have deducted that these opinion aren’t assertive neither of Galileo and his pupils, but alone in a disputation; and the confutation no of this evidence, because Galileo was Catholic, but the scientific discovery of Galileo is the fresco of Sacchi, above mentioned, because the verbal of process said: “Seen  in the book of solar spots printed in Rome two propositions, The sun is center of the word and every (planet) is immobile, the word isn’t the center of universe and every(planet) is mobile during the day: these thesis are judged absurd.”, the evidence of worry of Church for heresy is in following steps: “The first(opinion) is heretic both formally and repulsive to Holy written…”, it confirm the opinion, this is the worry for an eventually danger of heretic opinion. It is further confirmed from other words in same verbal: “For this the 25^th February 1616 our Lord(this is the pope Urban 8^th) to the mister cardinal Belarmino that he calls in front of herself Galileo and he gives precept that he not treats about the immobility of sun and the immobility of word”; it is the confirm that the Church was worry and the new discoveries would have lack its power also in scientific context; in fact Bellarmino give alone an order but he didn’t condemn these theories, in fact in fresco of Sacchi this theory is painted, evidently the pope Urban 8^th wanted alone to silence the Saint Uffizio, the institution of Church that judged the case of heresies; furthermore the fresco of Sacchi was painted in 1633, year of process to Galileo; it is evidences that it is alone a political position necessary to the Church and stop; and in fact after the process Galileo suffered the condemn of house arrest in Rome and after in Siena in palace of bishop Piccolomini and finally in his villa, near Florence, called the Jeweler. If he has been a heretic he would have bear sentence certainly more severe , and the bishop Piccolomini didn’t would guest him, thereupon that this accuse if heresy was untrustworthy, because a pope and a bishop has pay homage both directly and indirectly, for the fresco of Sacchi, to Galileo. Furthermore the deposition of Galileo: “He says that in year 1616 he gone to Rome for to hear that was opportune keep of opinion of Copernicus about the mobility of word and immobility of sun, and about this matter he has spoken to cardinals of saint Office and of cardinal Bellarmino”, if his opinions were heretical I doubt that Galileo have asked opinion to these cardinals; evidently the Church ascertained the importance of discoveries of Galileo, but he these thesis contrasted the Holy Bible the Church have to admit the Holy Bible has wrong  and it is would given a unhoped aid to Protestant confession, that would used this thesis to attack the Catholic confession.

Alessandro Lusana   

Fig.1

  

 

The true life of artist: Albrecht Dürer 

This essay around the life could be useless, because the artists are human and hence they has had same problems that every men has had, whereby the question is, how can we know it? An source are the letters of Albrecht Dürer(1471-1528) from Venice, during 1506; some step of the first letters attests it: “I know how much you do for me. And I beg of you be patient with my debt…”, the addresses is Wilibald Pirckheimer(1470-1530), student and humanistic from Nuremberg, and the worry of Dürer is evident in this step: “…for I think oftener of it than you do. As soon as God helps me to get home I will pay you honourably, with many thanks; for I have to paint a picture for the Germans, for which they are giving me no Rhenish gulden…”, the steps of this letter are necessary to understand that also who was busied in art was very human, Nietzsche(1844-1900) would say Human too, mentioning the title of one his book, but it is so, because Dürer asks patience to his debt and he specifis that: “I shall have finished laying and scraping the ground-work in eight days, then I shall at once begin to paint…”; from this step we can understand that also the work of painter, evidently wasn’t so good paid; we can deduct it from a step of this letter where he says that: “…and scraping the ground-work”, if he has been rich he wouldn’t have worked the ground then I shall at once begin to paint, and if God will, it shall be in its place for the altar a month after Easter …”; evidently the debt was serious, because he gives the assurances to his creditor, and more: “The money I hope, if God will, to put by; and from that I will pay you… for I think that I need not send my mother and wife any money at present;”, and the saving is very important for Dürer because he specified that: “I left 10 florins with my mother when I came away; she has since got 9 or 10 florins by selling works of art. Dratzieher has paid her 12 florins, and I have sent her 9 florins by Sebastian Imhof, of which she has to pay Pfinzing and Gartner 7 florins for rent. I gave my wife 12 florins and she got 13 more at Frankfort, making all together 23 florins…”; these very boring list of gains is necessary to documents that the life of an artist was very precarious because the artists were very much, and the concurrence was very strong; therefore we can welcome the artists and say to them: “Welcome to humankind”, but they would answer: “We are already in human gender you have daified us”, and they would have right, we are the burk; we can also comment that he could save the voyage in Venice, certainly but we must think that this journey were necessary to get inspiration to his job. But evidently beyond the inspiration is also the pride and the happiness to visit Venice, we would ask it to Dürer directly, but he is died, sometime occurs, and hence we can understand it for letters from Venice, he says: “…is well known, but that does not bother them have many good friends among the Italians who warn me not to eat and drink with their painters for many of them are my enemies and copy my work in the churches and wherever they can find it…”; we can think that is a note of custom, but the pride emerges from following words: “and copy my work in the churches…”, certainly some influence, on Giovanni Bellini(1430-1516), Giorgio from Castefranco, called Giorgione(1478-1510) and Tiziano Vecellio(1488-1576), because he painted in the Venetian church of Saint Bartholomew between years 1506-1507; but the influence was reciprocal, because the light of Dürer for this altarpiece is Venetian, and the composition, with Virgin on half of composition, is Venetian; in fact the Giorgione has followed Venetian composition for the altarpiece of Castelfranco; this reciprocity is natural in painting, the influences are natural, above all when a painter has success, therefore every costumer wanted a painting that equal the famous painter. But beyond the influences Dürer is a man and thereupon thought to gain, hence the step in regard the selling, in fact he summary describes the gain: “  First my willing service to you, dear Herr Pirkheimer. If things go well with you, then I am indeed glad. Know, too, that by the grace of God I am doing well and working fast. Still I do not expect to have finished before Whitsuntide. I have sold all my pictures except one. For two I got 24 ducats, and the other three I gave for these three rings, which were valued in the exchange as worth 24 ducats…”, other note that we can consider is that the endeavor of painters both in Venice and everywhere was the same, because the competition was very strong, and the note in regard human rapports is fleeting, but meaningful: “…but I have shown them to some good friends and they say they are only worth 22, and as you wrote to me to buy you some jewels…”, the simple words of a letter, whereby nothing that can interest, but if we consider good the words, that are fleeting, this is: “some good friends…”, because alone some? Evidently in endeavor of painters was already the privilege to have some friend, it is normal in contest of business, where good friends aren’t, but I among painters it can think that it is possible, but the restrict number, stressed from partitive adjective “some” shows that the completion was very hard, and the confirm of this opinion is reading the follow words: “And I have such a crowd of foreigners (Italians) about me that I am forced sometimes to shut myself up, and the gentlemen all wish me well, but few of the painters.”, where the confirm? Simple during the last words: “but few of the painters”, few is adjective that indicates a quantity very scant, therefore we are right that the endeavor of artists was a competitive. Following the read episodes and meaningful step of difficult condition emerges in 8^th march 1506, is evident that also to get the colors was argument of negotiation, this step shows it: “…and only after much entreaty could I get it for i8 ducats 4 marcelli from a man who was wearing it on his own hand and who let me have it as a favor…”; hence also the buy of a ring is a problem; but after the same ring is sold: “And as soon as I had bought it a German goldsmith wanted to give me 3 ducats more for it than I paid so I hope that you will like it”, this certainly boring steps are necessary to consider that the Renaissance beyond the exposition of art works, it was always same for money, and also a gift is motive to tell some episode, and above all the price. The nature of seller of Dürer is in other step where he prides his gift but with price: “Everybody says that it is a good stone, and that in Germany it would be worth about 50 florins”, but the nature of aspirant seller that Dürer wasn’t is in this step: “…however, you will know whether they tell truth orlies. I understand nothing about it.”, and the human nature is present in every town because the art of deceive is always present, thereupon: “had first of all bought an amethyst for 12 ducats from a man whom I thought was a good friend, but he deceived me, for it was not worth 7…”; the honesty is privilege. We can also know what is the price of an altarpiece that Dürer painted for Germans merchants in Venice, in 1506, a step of this letter says that: “They have summoned me three times before the magistrates, and I have had to pay 4 florins to their School. You must know too that I might have gained much money if I had not undertaken to make the painting for the Germans, for there is a great deal of work in it and I cannot well finish it before Whitsuntide; yet they only pay me 85 ducats for it.”, it is alone a note that hasn’t relevance, because important is that the work is present, but also know the price leads us to consider that evidently in Venice the company of the German merchants was very active and dynamic, because we must think that Venice was a city very rich for its merchants, hence the Germans were very relevant community. From these letters emerges also an human side, because Dürer in a letter of 25^th April says: “First my willing service to you, dear Sir. I Venice wonder why you do not write to me…”, it is the worry of Dürer that I have confused for 10 minutes how the human side, but this conviction is invalidated very soon in following letter, where is evident the motive of this preoccupation, because the addressee was certainly financier of journey of Dürer, and we can hypothesize it from compliment and praises that he given to Pirkheimer: “ 28th August, 1506.To the first greatest man in the world; your servant and slave, Alberto Dürer, sends salutation to his magnificent Master Wilibaldo Pirkamer. By my faith, I hear gladly and with great pleasure of your health and great honor, and I marvel how it is possible for a man like you to stand against so many…”, and that Pirkamer was the financier is proved from following words: “Thank you, too, for everything you are doing for me…”, certainly it was the money necessary. The money is the lack in every time and context, and for Dürer isn’t exception and the following words explained it: “But I cannot get away from here in two months, for I have not enough money yet to start myself off… as I have written to you before; and so I pray you if my mother comes to you for a loan, let her have lo florins till God helps me out”, evidently Dürer had not money, and it is evident, but other new emerges, and we can hypothesize that by now the sojourn in Venice was finished, because evidently nothing could attract Dürer; and the correct behavior emerges, because he promises to pay the debt: “Then I will scrupulously repay you the whole.”, Dürer has had also other friends that could give the money because he mentioned in this letter a German rich merchant Anton Kolb, that employed Jacopo de’ Barbari(1460-1516), that wanted a xylography very great of Venice to sell it in Germany; we can know this merchant alone to letters of Dürer. Other note is that also an artist could kept rapports typically speculative, in financier acceptation, because the two carpets, this new is in following words, that aren’t certainly very scant interesting, but it give other information about the preference of north Europe for Venice, as for commission to de’ Barbari, above mentioned: “And as for the two carpets, Anthon Kolb will help me to buy the most beautiful, from the broadest, and the cheapest.”. A new certainly important for print art is in the following words: A book printer of whom I enquired tells me that he knows of no Greek books that have been brought out recently…”; we can think that this Greek book was a printed of greatest typographer of 16^th century, this is Aldo Manuzio(1449-1515), that worked in Venice and there is died. The appreciations are certainly very important to an artist but nobody lives for praises, and it is reminded from Dürer: “  I have got much praise but little profit by it.”, but the human pride emerges from following words: “I have shut up all the painters, who used to say that I was good at engraving, but that in painting I didn't know how to handle my colors.”; it is typical reaction of every men in front of offense or belittle, that are considered always offences, whereby Dürer has reaction typical not alone of an artist, but of every men, and the satisfaction after this judge is: “Now they all say they never saw better coloring.”, we can think that this reaction of Venetian artists was determined from envy. May this condition o was valid alone to Dürer in Venice because in same letter he said: “You need not lend my wife and mother anything .They have got money enough.”; evidently the sojourn of Albert alone was difficult. This friend of Dürer, evidently have to be much appreciated because in letter of 23th September 1506 he has written: “Your letter telling me of the overflowing praise that you received from princes and nobles gave me great allegrezza(it is happiness)”, evidently this financier was esteemed from much princes and noblemen, above all because he can give loans, because the commends are alone for this. In the same letter he mentions other painting: “I must do likewise when I meet you again. Know also that my picture is finished, likewise another quadro(painting), the like of which I never made before.” We can hypothesize that these painting that Albert has mentioned are one portrait of the young man from Venice and other painting that without the summary description of subject we can’t identify. But in other letter in 23th September 1506 the subject is mentioned: “Know also that in four weeks at the latest I shall be finished here, for I have to paint first some portraits…”, and we can think that at last one of these portraits is of Venetian  young woman. The contradiction is evident because some letters ago he has denied a loan to his mother and wife because he have enough money, but now he says: “The other day I found a grey hair on my head, which was produced by sheer misery and annoyance.”; this grievance is may alone for economical condition that Albert lived in Venice, but the future evidently wasn’t so happy: “I am fated to have evil days”. , but in some occasion Albert can also hint to some gain: “As for your plea that I should come home quickly, I will come just as soon as I can ; but I must first gain money for my expenses. I have paid out about 100 ducats for colors and other things, and I have ordered two carpets which I shall pay for tomorrow…”, evidently there was the job, and it is proofed through the same letter, above all the steps: “I have paid out about 100 ducats for colors and other things, and I have ordered two carpets…”; for colors it is a right expense, but the carpets is very useless, but evidently the commissions to him were. And the following step is more clear: “…but I could not get them cheap.”, but if your economy is very scant you must buy it to cheap, or your economy wasn’t so poor? From following words it seems no, because to engage a master of dancing is very anomalous for the poor artist: “Know, too, that I decided to learn dancing and went twice to the school, for which I had to pay the master a ducat.”. Dürer hasn’t forgotten his principal job, this is the artist because he wanted go to travel to Bologna where a man taught to him perspective: “After that I should like to travel to Bologna to learn the secrets of the art of perspective, which a man there is willing to teach me.” The diary of his sojourn in the Low countries, from 1520 to 1521, is begun with a job, because he has told that, in July 1520: “…and presented to the Bishop a painted Virgin and a "Life of the Virgin," an "Apocalypse," and a florin's worth of engravings.”, Naturally the bishop has asked to him because his fame of engraver was very wide; but the ideal of theology must be tied to earth, hence the practical life must be provided, thereupon the money are considered, and the spends  are punctually signed: “I paid 6 florins in gold to the boatmen who took me from Bamberg to Frankfurt.”      

 

Alessandro Lusana    

   

 

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Travel in the history

Richard was a professor in a famous university he, through the interest, brought the students to live the history, he told about the human condition and the true history, that was composed both from nobles men and above all from poor, he has always the episode beauty or hell or alone nice that he introduced in his lessons to relax the attention. The students were very happy for his lessons and during a lesson one Henry closed the eyes just a moment and when he opened it he was in other place and other city, he wore a cloth very strange, that seems Renaiisance, and he around heard a strange language, that he didn’t understood; he turned around and wanted asked something, this is what is this city, and why there is a procession, and because the citizens were clothed so, and other. He stopped a man and asked: “Excuse me but where are?”, and the man: “Are you Henry?” and he answered: “Yes! I am, but I want know where are we ?”, and the man: “In Bologna, Italian city and the lord that will arrives is pope Leon 10^th Medici’s family, and he receives the king of France Francis 1th of Valois.” And Henry: “But I know that Leon pope is Florentine, and why the Bologna city and no Florence?”, and the man: “because in meeting of cardinal in Viterbo, other city of Italian center, the cardinals has thought that the Florentine families against Medici could organize a plot against the pope and his family, above all Pier Soderini, that was the chief of faction against Medici, he was in the guilt of silk and the Medici family contrasted his merchants, for this he have to be come on from Florence”, and Henry: “ Why a plot? De Medici family has the power in Florence and it is absolute”, and the man laughed and: “Classic error, if your professor hear it he would beat you before that he come on”, and Henry: “I have misunderstood”, and the man: “Certainly, you have understand nothing; it is sufficient that you look the history through the logic, and everything become easy”, and Henry: “How?”, and the man: “Florence was a republic city state, and in republic nobody has the absolute power, in fact then there is the Counsel of five hundred, and the decisions belong alone to this counsel”, and Henry: “And the Medici family?”, and the man: “It was the important family but alone a family, that was gone back from exile, and in fact the Church voted in Conclave the cardinal Giovanni de Medici because his family was turned to power in Florence six months before of his election”, and Henry: “Why elected a member of this family when they has been banished from Florence?”, and the man smiled and gazed Henry: “Who accompanied the Medici family to Florence and to the power?”, and Henry: “No idea”, and the man: “The Spanish soldiers, and the Spain was the better and faithful ally to the Church”, and Henry: “Excuse me but I don’t understand, so what the Spain and the power of Medici, it isn’t connection”, and the man: “The connection is in the politic”, and Henry: “Where is the tie because I don’t find it”, and the man: “After the come on of Medici’s family, Florence was a republic state, independent, and the Church hasn’t a reference that could bewitch through election of cardinal of family or other, because the Florence was a republic independent that could tie its power to every enemy of Church, hence after the gone back of Medici to Florence was necessary that the city turned friend of Church, this is the pope Leon 10^th,, it is clear to you?”, and Henry: “Yes, but the Spain?”, and the man: “The Spain was necessary to stressed that Florence was turned to Church, and the Medici family becomes the reference of Church and Spain in Italy, more you given to somebody major is going to be faithful, and the Medici has received the Florence, although the power isn’t absolute, but they are now the reference, and the visit in Bologna stead than Florence, because the enemies of Medici are again present, whereby the power isn’t absolute”, and Henry: “And after?”, and the man: “After return to power Leon 10^th, given the power to his nephew, Lorenzo, and he indicated in a Instruction the formation of an oligarchy govern, all friend of Medici”, and Henry: “It is attests that the power was absolute, hence I was right”, and the man smiled: “Use the logic, why a oligarchic govern?”, and Henry: “Because it is absolute govern?”, and man: “No, because the Medici family didn’t want the enemies, and it was present in Florence, for this the city for the visit was Bologna and no Florence, therefore was necessary that the enemies of Medici has had the occasion to a plot, and Francis 1th king of France was become the enemy of Medici, above all after the gone back to Florence thank to Spain; the enemies of Medici could became ally to Francis 1th; but he have to come on the Medici family, and both the Spain and the Church would have elected a pope that was useless, it is alone politic”. Henry asked also around the ceremony: “Why this solemnity for a visit?”, and the man: “This is also is politic and it is the historical politic”, and Henry: “Historical? Why?”, and the man: “Because during ancient Rome the cortege begun from triumphal door in Martial camp, it was the border that must be passed to made the in the city”, and Henry seen much persons that gone toward the pope, and he asked: “Why those persons are going to the pope?”, and the man: “Because a citizen representative must meet the pope, in ancient Rome he was the winning general that after gone up on the quadriga, and he gone toward the Roman forum and toward the Jupiter temple during the 2th century before Christ, and the Roman certainly didn’t saved on the celebrations, and in fact they built triumphal arcs and golden sculptures, and Henry: “Why it?”, and the man: “Because politics and ceremonials are not separate subjects, the one serious, the other superficial. Ritual is not the mask of force, but is itself a type of power», and Henry: “When is it from?”, and the man: “For popes from Alexander 6^th pope and from July 2th, when the first ephemeral decorations on the streets with architectonic style, but it has took from ancient Rome; the procession was very crowded because the composition was very studied: the first position was the Florentine aristocracy, Italian and European ambassadors, the Roman clergy and very much servants, and the ceremonial man thrown coins for the sum of 3000 ducats, and it is necessary to took the favor of people.”, and Henry: “Why always the money?”, and the man: “For the same motive for gather the people around the power men, wealth, otherwise nobody there is. And the man gone away and after turned toward to Henry and he said: “You must keep it in your memory because you have to repeat it to me during the exam”.

Alessandro Lusana    

 

 

The jar of Pirandello: an allegorical portrait of society

The Jar of Luigi Pirandello(1867-1936), is an allegorical representation of Italian society in 1906, the story is a fight of a rich owner of lands and an artisan that have to repair a jar; the craftsman that eaten while he is repairing the jar, and when he has finished the reparation, he could not exit from jar because he bump doesn’t it, whereby he must destroyed the jar to exit. It is a very simple history and very much scant amusing, but it is become interesting if we consider the allusion or allegorical meaningful that is behind; the Italian and European society was grasped by the high moral and conformity custom, that promoted the elegance and respectability; hence an empty society without ideal and other, because the elegance, the behavior, the conformism were all; thereupon Pirandello through The jar described allegorically the Italian society in 1906, how? This is question, because so what a destroyed jar to a human society and its customs? Apparently nothing but if we consider the story it is has inherence, how? Simple the jar of this comedy is the prison that the society has created, formal rules and customs that are the correspondent of jar in the comedy, in fact the rich owner of lands is the society, the conformist society and the craftsman is the common people that hasn’t these postures, in fact the artisan is poor and humpbacked, it is a rebellion to the respectability, because the esthetic appearance is very secondary; expressed so it is normal, but allegorical meaningful is that the artisan though to essence, this is the exit from jar, instead the owner though the form, this is the reparation of jar, because formally the jar must be perfect alone formally, because it is important; alone formal rightly. The broken jar is divided for two sides, and it is allusion to two societies, therefore the formal society of Belle époque and the pragmatic and poor society of artisan, without polemical intention but, in conformity of custom of Pirandello, a description more or less explicit of society, its uses and customs, and the artisan’s reparation of jar is other allegory to the society, this is the poor people that guarantees the survive of this classist society, that despises the common people, but thank for this poor and humpback class the society of Belle époque lives. We know that this comedy has been written in 1906, but the behaviors are similar and almost equal, or superimposable today to customs of our societies, that has refuse very strong of poverty and minor social classes, whereby Pirandello described the social behaviors of his time but he involuntary describes also our.

Alessandro Lusana                   

    

 

 Traditio: a pause of history

This substantive is by now in common language, and his meaning is common acknowledge hence this essay hasn’t motive, but I want consider that we don’t is tradition; the answer to this question is elementary, it is the translated in other time that is past, end of this essay!, But are we sure of this definition? Because the tradition, from Latin acceptation means give, and the tie to the common sense is lost, because the connection isn’t. The tradition is alone a pause of history, that can occurs in every time and can persists some years or decades; but what is this time, when has consolidated some customs or opinions, that is from customs, what is this time? Simple it is the pause of history, a period when all is stop, a period that during the past was more frequent than this period, because the customs and way of life were very different; and if the tradition have the mean of translation we could have today some memory of medieval past, and to this affirmation, this is the we have again the Medieval or Renaissance tradition is absolutely false, because the answer to this affirmation is the logic consideration, this is: “The Middle age and Renaissance are past”; but how is possible a change of tradition? Simple when a pause is finished, because the customs are changed, the habits are change, because the technology has given new tools the pause is finished, and for it is finished also the tradition; we can’t today recognize the end of traditions in regard past, we can hypothesize that this custom is changed in that decade, we can think it through the art or literature or science, but can alone hypothesize it, because the change of custom is very slender and mute because tied to social, and we can’t know it because the pause of history is very long or short but always silent. We can think that a war could change the social customs, thereupon the Middle age is the shorter traditional period of humankind, because there isn’t a week without a war; but the Middle age is a long period of pause, that is finished for Renaissance, and the Medieval tradition isn’t followed toward the Renaissance, because the laicism, that was already present in Middle age, in 15^th century becomes official, this phenomenal is interpretable how a pause that the humanity has allowed to herself, that when this pause is finished the Renaissance has took alone something of Middle age, it is comparable to our pause from job, we usually don’t bring with us nothing of pause, the same process is for the centuries of history; a pause allows to customs and opinion and other of stabilization of some custom, and more long is time of pause major is tradition, but alone for that period, because after this pause other periods are going to be occur, whereby the pause may is going to be or no; in fact the Middle age is last long pause of humanity, because very much opinions and customs were present and stabilized, but the pause is finished the Renaissance has lost almost everything of Middle age, and that is remained is used with innovations, we can paragon this phenomenal to our sleep, that we can compare to Middle age, a long pause, that ends, the our awake is the Renaissance, in fact the sleep we bring something, may the dreams, but of tire nothing because we have slept, the tradition is similar after the awake, this is the Renaissance, the Middle age, this is the sleep is finished, and a sentence is opportune to this contest: “It is the cryptic and unstoppable spirit of man, this is the history”, in opinion of Leopold von Ranke(1795-1886); and this spirit sometime takes a pause, thereupon the tradition.

Alessandro Lusana                         

 

       

 

Defeatist to living room

In a villa in country, Alfred, a professor of philosophy usually meet his friends, among them nobody has the same ideas, religion or aesthetic preference, in fact the living room of Alfred was the fixed appointment to argued one other and after everybody come away happy because has had the quart of hours of glory. In that meeting was one new professor of philosophy that was called Socrates, because both in examinations in front of student he give the questions very logic, because his sake wasn’t alone teach the philosophy, but indicate the way to think, his name was Ulysses, in fact in University he was loved from students but hated from colleagues because he attracted students and the students of other course didn’t attend their lessons because Ulysses has his lesson, furthermore the requests of thesis were very much. He was judged very bad form other professors, but interesting was that he was exempt from envy or wickedness or equal sentiments. In living room everybody were seated and they spook about polity, economy and other, and Alfred turned to Ulysses, after an hour of these deep discussions, and Ulysses glazed Alfred and answer to demand of Alfred, that invited him to participate, Ulysses thanked Alfred and after commented: “Habitual defeatists to living room”, and he got up and greeted everybody, Alfred stopped him through a cry: “Where do you are going?”, and Ulysses: “Among five minutes you come on me and my opinions, hence I want anticipate the exit”, and Alfred: “Here the discussion is free!”, and Ulysses that doesn’t the hypocrisy turned toward Alfred, and: “Do you attended a special course of fakeness or it is spontaneous?”, Alfred was very amazing because Ulysses has always received the offense or hinds but he has never reacted, Alfred invited him to seat, and very faired for this reaction asked what he wanted say, and Ulysses: “You are usual defeatist to living room, this is usual radical chic, this is nothing absolutely, any is your political think”, and Charlies, one guest: “What do are saying? I want know your think”; and Ulysses: “You are previewing the end of Occident and the end of our civility, but it is fake because the lost or lack of values is simple dynamic of history”, and every guest gazed him, and Anne, a woman professor: “What do you mean?”, and Ulysses: “I will use the same way that I use for my students, this is with questions”, and in fact Elisabeth, other woman professor, commented: “Your nickname is Socrates and it is normal that you give questions”, and Ulysses smiled and give the question: “Do you are believer?”, and Anne: “No!”, and Ulysses: “If we were in Middle age we can justify everything through the will of God”, and Annie: “But the Middle age is finished”, and Ulysses: “Yes, but if a man of Middle age was here he would comment that the war, the poverty, the richness and other are alone the will of God, or no?”, and Anne: “Yes!”, and Ulysses. “Why?”, and Alfred: “Because during Middle age is t is the predominant think”,  and Ulysses: “hence we have lost the values, because we don’t justify everything through the will of God, whereby this loss is will of God or no?” and Elisabeth: “No certainly because God isn’t”, and Ulysses. “But during Middle age it was unique justification”, and Barbara, other woman professor: “During Middle age yes, but today no”, and Ulysses. “Thereupon we aren’t in Middle age”, and George. “No, we are in 2026, and the Middle age is ended”, and Ulysses: “Hence time is past?”, both Anne and Elisabeth looked one other, and gather: “Yes”, and Ulysses: “Time is past therefore also the values of that period or era, or no?”, and everybody: “Yes”,, and Ulysses: “Time is past, and values are past or no?”, and Anne: “No!”, and Ulysses: “I repeat the question: do you are believer?”, and Anne: “I have answered, no absolutely!”, and Ulysses: “Hence you have lost the values because you aren’t believer, hence for you God isn’t”, and Anne: “No, I aren’t believer but I have other values”, and Ulysses: “I am come from Middle age, you don’t believe that God exist, whereby you have lost every values, because I am man of Middle age, and for me alone God is the value, therefore you have lost the unique value”, and Annie: “You think it because you come from Middle age, but now we are in 2026, and your Middle age is finished”, and Ulysses: “Whereby now is allowed lose God?”, and Anne: “Certain!”,  and Ulysses: “Why?”, and Annie: “Because time is different as the context2, and Ulysses: “Whereby time is past”, and Annie: “Yes, it is past and stop, please”, and Ulysses: “The context is different because, I explain it to you and other, because the sciences, technology, and general progress in every field is improve and it progressed, hence the values that I, medieval man have had, now are past, it is right?”, and Annie: “Yes”, and Ulysses: “Among a hundred years our values are going to be  history, and our values are going to be past”, and George that gazed Ulysses: “Certain it is the history”, and Ulysses: “Clever George, it is history, therefore isn’t decadence or loss of values, but is alone a change of values, that we now don’t understand because we are other generation, and for us these new values are strange but it aren’t lost but alone change, among hundred years the values of present generations are going to be old, and in some living room they may are going to be same words that we are saying now, this is that new generations has lost the values; in stead the values are alone changed, because the technology and sciences are progressed; hence the values are a context of time, that is tied to progress; today we can give our friendship to everybody, because it is allowed for Facebook, and we can speck and write to thousands of persons; in 1926 it was impossible, because the computer there isn’t, and the way to know somebody was different; thereupon you are defeatist to living room, because our values are already overcome, as we have lost the values of our grandfathers, because it don’t belong to our generation; this defeatism is alone a posture and stop. The Monday students have to set an exam, and Ulysses seat among students because he has a nephew there, and the woman professor was Anne, that was hearing Laura, nephew of Ulysses, and she spook around the decadence of values, and Anne: “Laura the Middle age is past, for you my values are died, as for your nephews your values are old”, Laura gazed hers and commented: “But during lesson you have said different things”, and Anne: “Yes because I didn’t know a person, but I have known him, the time passes and from Freeday to today time is past.”

Alessandro Lusana  

        

 

 

Speculative physics: the method of Aristotle

How said in this essay is pure obvious, but it is a philosophical method, or better the Aristotle method, the speculative philosophy that now is applied to a science, this is the physic, the philosopher says: “Since in every field of research exist the principles or causes or elements, the acknowledge and the science are from the from acknowledge of these, we in fact think that we know everything alone when we have known understood the first causes and the first principles, and, finally the elements, it is evident that also in science of nature we must research that are principles. It is natural that we begin from the principle that we knowable better from its nature, but it aren’t the same thing, this is the knowable for us and knowable absolutely. For this we must work through this method, from that is less clear for nature but clearer to us…”; it is simply obvious and it isn’t certainly a great discovery; but what I want stress is that Aristotle uses this method, very simple and obvious, this is speculative, also the science, that today is very complicated from new discoveries, it is the history, but Aristotle has given a method, because it is was the first argument of Stagira philosopher; give the way absolutely valid, and simple, necessary to acknowledge. And this hypothesis is clear  for following words, likewise obvious and for this clearer, but Aristotle was teaching a method: “To us are clearer and evident the things gather, and alone to second moment we manage, through the analysis, we can distinguish the elements and principles.”, it is normal criterion of inquiry but Aristotle indicated the method, this is that was very interesting to him, in fact: “For this we must inquiry from universal to particular: in fact to sensation is immediately knowable the whole, and the universal is the whole, because it contained very much things as side. It occurs also for the names in regard to their definition: it indicate something in its whole and through indetermination, as the name “circle”, the definition of it after specify for the single side…”, and the following words are majority clear: “Also the children in first period of life call father every men and mother every women, and in second period they distinguish everything to particular.”, Aristotle want alone give a method, for this he is so simple, because a method must be very simple, and above all it is must teach with clearer examples, so that every men can learn what is the method. I think that this simplicity is from the example of Socrates, that Aristotle known alone indirectly, but he was pupil of Plato, that was pupil of Socrates, hence Plato could have spook about the Socrates during his lessons, the estimate of Plato for Socrates is evident from his dialogues, where Socrates is always, or almost always protagonist; Socrates hence could, indirectly I repeat, taught to Aristotle the logic and easy method,. Other important thing that we must consider that Aristotle in precedent words has explicated one principle very fundamental for his method, this is from universal to particular; it is the specific criterion of this philosopher, and the rightness of my opinion, in regard the teaching of method, is evident in these words: “For this we must inquiry from universal to particular…”, it is the method that Aristotle used every time, and after the students of Aristotle have took to explain, less clearly than Aristotle, a principle of methodological philosophical of Aristotle.

Alessandro Lusana